Exam 1 Study Guide: Psychology Chapters 1-4 (Intro, Research, Biopsychology, Consciousness)

Ch. 1 Introduction & History of Psychology

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand how individuals think, feel, and act, both individually and in groups.

• Behavior: Observable actions of individuals.

• Mental Processes: Internal experiences such as thoughts, emotions, and perceptions.

• Example: Studying how stress affects decision-making.

Plato’s vs. Aristotle's Beliefs

Plato and Aristotle were early philosophers whose ideas influenced psychology.

• Plato: Believed in innate knowledge; the mind is separate from the body.

• Aristotle: Emphasized empirical observation; knowledge comes from experience.

• Example: Plato’s theory supports nature, Aristotle’s supports nurture.

Dualism (Descartes) vs. Materialism (Hobbes)

These theories address the relationship between mind and body.

• Dualism (Descartes): Mind and body are separate entities.

• Materialism (Hobbes): Mind and body are one; mental processes are physical.

• Example: Dualism suggests consciousness exists beyond the brain; materialism says it is a product of the brain.

Father of Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt is considered the "father of psychology" for founding the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Behavioral Perspective

The behavioral perspective focuses on observable behavior and the effects of learning.

• Beliefs: Behavior is shaped by environment and experience.

• Key Psychologists: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner.

• Example: Studying how rewards influence learning.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Founded by Sigmund Freud, this perspective emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.

• Beliefs: Behavior is influenced by unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

• Example: Analyzing dreams to uncover hidden desires.

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on individual potential and self-actualization.

• Beliefs: People are inherently good and strive for personal growth.

• Key Psychologists: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow.

• Example: Therapy that emphasizes empathy and personal development.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Early schools of thought in psychology.

• Structuralism: Analyzes the structure of the mind using introspection (Wundt, Titchener).

• Functionalism: Focuses on the purpose of mental processes (James).

• Criticisms of Structuralism: Introspection is subjective and unreliable.

Cognitive Revolution

The shift in psychology during the 1950s-60s toward studying mental processes such as thinking, memory, and language.

• Example: Research on how people solve problems.

Mary Whiton Calkins

• First female president of the American Psychological Association (APA); denied a PhD from Harvard.

George Sanchez

• Pioneered research on cultural bias in intelligence testing.

Doll Study

• Conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark; demonstrated the effects of segregation on African American children's self-esteem.

Ch. 2 Research Methods

5 Steps of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a systematic approach to research.

1. Formulate a question

2. Develop a hypothesis

3. Design a study

4. Collect data

5. Analyze results and draw conclusions

Sample vs. Population

• Population: The entire group of interest.

• Sample: A subset of the population used in a study.

• Example: Studying college students (sample) to generalize to all young adults (population).

Operational Definition

• A precise description of how variables are measured or manipulated in a study.

• Example: Defining "stress" as heart rate increase.

Case Study

• In-depth investigation of a single individual or group.

• Example: Studying a patient with a rare brain disorder.

Naturalistic Observation

• Observing behavior in its natural environment without intervention.

• Example: Watching children play in a park.

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

• Independent Variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher.

• Dependent Variable: The variable measured for change.

• Example: Testing the effect of sleep (independent) on memory (dependent).

Positive vs. Negative Correlation

• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.

• Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

• Example: Height and weight (positive); stress and health (negative).

Correlation Coefficient

• A statistical measure of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

• Ranges from -1 (perfect negative) to +1 (perfect positive).

• Example: $r = 0.8$ indicates a strong positive correlation.

Non-experimental vs. Experimental Design

• Non-experimental: Observational; cannot determine causality.

• Experimental: Manipulates variables; can determine causality.

• Example: Experiments test if a drug causes improvement.

Theory vs. Hypothesis

• Theory: Broad explanation based on evidence.

• Hypothesis: Specific, testable prediction.

Belmont Report & Principles

• Ethical guidelines for research with human subjects.

• Principles: Respect for persons, beneficence, justice.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• Committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

Ch. 3 Brain & Biology

Parts of a Neuron and Their Functions

• Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.

• Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus; integrates information.

• Axon: Transmits electrical impulses.

• Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters.

Role of the Myelin Sheath

• Insulates axons; speeds up transmission of electrical signals.

• Example: Multiple sclerosis involves myelin loss.

General Functions of Key Brain Structures

• Medulla: Controls vital functions (breathing, heart rate).

• Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, and hormones.

• Thalamus: Relays sensory information (except smell).

• Hippocampus: Essential for memory formation.

Thalamus & Olfaction

• All senses except olfaction (smell) pass through the thalamus.

Pituitary Gland

• "Master gland"; controls other endocrine glands and regulates growth, metabolism.

Corpus Callosum

• Bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres; enables communication between them.

Endocrine System vs. Nervous System

• Endocrine System: Uses hormones; slower, longer-lasting effects.

• Nervous System: Uses electrical and chemical signals; fast, short-term effects.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex & Their Functions

• Frontal Lobe: Planning, decision-making, motor control.

• Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing, spatial awareness.

• Temporal Lobe: Hearing, language, memory.

• Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.

Neurotransmitters: Effects and Influences

Neurotransmitter	Effect	Drug/Stimulus
Serotonin	Mood regulation, sleep	SSRIs (antidepressants)
Dopamine	Reward, movement	Cocaine, antipsychotics
Acetylcholine	Learning, memory	Nicotine
Glutamate	Excitatory, learning	MSG (food additive)
GABA	Inhibitory, calming	Benzodiazepines

Agonist vs. Antagonist

• Agonist: Enhances or mimics neurotransmitter action.

• Antagonist: Blocks neurotransmitter action.

• Example: Morphine (agonist for endorphins); naloxone (antagonist).

Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System

• Somatic: Controls voluntary movements.

• Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions (heart rate, digestion).

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Sympathetic: Activates "fight or flight" response.

• Parasympathetic: Promotes "rest and digest" functions.

Ch. 4 States of Consciousness

Automatic Processing

• Tasks performed with little conscious effort (e.g., driving familiar routes).

Selective Attention

• Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

• Example: Listening to one conversation in a noisy room.

Inattentional Blindness

• Failure to notice unexpected objects when attention is focused elsewhere.

• Example: Missing a gorilla in a video when counting basketball passes.

Circadian Rhythm

• Biological cycle of about 24 hours regulating sleep, wakefulness, and other bodily functions.

Melatonin

• Hormone released by the pineal gland; promotes sleep.

Sleep Cycle Responsible for Vivid Dreaming

• REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep: Stage associated with vivid dreams.

Sleep Spindles

• Bursts of rapid brain activity during Stage 2 sleep; may aid memory consolidation.

Narcolepsy vs. Insomnia

Disorder	Definition
Narcolepsy	Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks
Insomnia	Difficulty falling or staying asleep

Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreams

• Freud’s theory: Dreams reveal unconscious desires.

• Scientific Support: Largely unsupported by modern research.

Activation Synthesis Model

• Dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.

Depressants vs. Stimulants vs. Hallucinogens

Drug Type	Effect	Example
Depressants	Slow nervous system activity	Alcohol
Stimulants	Increase nervous system activity	Caffeine
Hallucinogens	Distort perception	LSD

Physiological vs. Psychological Dependence

• Physiological: Body adapts to drug; withdrawal symptoms.

• Psychological: Emotional or mental need for a drug.

Myths vs. Truths about Hypnosis

• Myth: Hypnosis can force people to act against their will.

• Truth: Hypnosis increases suggestibility but does not override free will.

Benefits of Meditation

• Reduces stress, improves attention, enhances emotional well-being.