Exam 1 Study Guide: Psychology Chapters 1-4 (Intro, Research, Biopsychology, Consciousness)

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Ch. 1 Introduction & History of Psychology

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand how humans and animals think, feel, and act, using empirical methods to investigate observable actions and internal experiences.

Key Point: Psychology combines scientific research with the study of mind and behavior.
Example: Studying how stress affects decision-making.

Plato’s vs. Aristotle's Beliefs

Plato and Aristotle were early philosophers whose ideas influenced psychology.

Plato: Believed in innate knowledge; the mind is separate from the body.
Aristotle: Emphasized empirical observation; knowledge comes from experience.
Example: Plato’s theory supports nature, Aristotle’s supports nurture.

Dualism (Descartes) vs. Materialism (Hobbes)

These theories address the relationship between mind and body.

Dualism (Descartes): Mind and body are separate entities.
Materialism (Hobbes): Mind is a function of the physical brain; only matter exists.
Example: Dualism suggests thoughts are non-physical; materialism says thoughts are brain activity.

Father of Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt is considered the "father of psychology" for founding the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Behavioral Perspective

The behavioral perspective focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned.

Beliefs: Behavior is shaped by environment and reinforcement.
Psychologists: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner.
Example: Training a dog using rewards.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Founded by Sigmund Freud, this perspective emphasizes unconscious motives and early childhood experiences.

Beliefs: Behavior is influenced by unconscious drives and conflicts.
Example: Analyzing dreams to uncover hidden desires.

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on individual potential and self-actualization.

Beliefs: People are inherently good and strive for growth.
Example: Therapy that encourages personal growth.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Structuralism: Analyzes the structure of the mind using introspection (Wundt, Titchener).
Functionalism: Studies the purpose of mental processes (William James).
Criticisms of Structuralism: Introspection is subjective and unreliable.

Cognitive Revolution

The shift in psychology during the 1950s-60s toward studying mental processes like memory, perception, and thinking.

Example: Research on how people solve problems.

Mary Whiton Calkins

First female president of the American Psychological Association (APA); contributed to memory research.

George Sanchez

Pioneered research on cultural bias in intelligence testing.

Doll Study

Conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark; demonstrated the effects of segregation on children's self-esteem.

Ch. 2 Research Methods

Scientific Method: 5 Steps

1. Formulate a question
2. Develop a hypothesis
3. Conduct research/collect data
4. Analyze results
5. Draw conclusions

Sample vs. Population

Population: Entire group of interest.
Sample: Subset of the population used in a study.
Example: Studying college students (population) by surveying 100 students (sample).

Operational Definition

Specifies how a concept is measured or manipulated in a study.
Example: Defining "stress" as heart rate increase.

Case Study

In-depth investigation of a single individual or group.
Example: Studying a patient with unique brain injury.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without intervention.
Example: Watching children play in a park.

Variables

Independent Variable: Manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable: Measured outcome.
Example: Testing effect of sleep (independent) on test scores (dependent).

Correlation

Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.
Negative Correlation: One variable increases, the other decreases.
Correlation Coefficient: Measures strength and direction; ranges from -1 to +1.
Interpretation: Values closer to ±1 indicate stronger relationships.

Experimental vs. Non-Experimental Design

Experimental: Manipulates variables to determine causality.
Non-Experimental: Observes variables without manipulation.
Example: Randomized controlled trial (experimental); survey (non-experimental).

Theory vs. Hypothesis

Theory: Broad explanation based on evidence.
Hypothesis: Testable prediction derived from a theory.

Belmont Report & IRB

Belmont Report: Outlines ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, justice.
IRB (Institutional Review Board): Reviews research for ethical compliance.

Ch. 3 Brain & Biology

Parts of a Neuron & Functions

Dendrites: Receive signals.
Cell Body (Soma): Processes signals.
Axon: Transmits signals.
Axon Terminals: Send signals to other neurons.

Myelin Sheath

Insulates axon, speeds up signal transmission.

Brain Structures & Functions

Medulla: Controls vital functions (breathing, heart rate).
Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis, hunger, thirst.
Thalamus: Relays sensory information (except smell).
Hippocampus: Involved in memory formation.
Thalamus & Olfaction: Olfactory information bypasses thalamus.
Pituitary Gland: Master gland; controls hormones.
Corpus Callosum: Connects left and right hemispheres.

Endocrine vs. Nervous System

Endocrine System: Uses hormones, slower communication.
Nervous System: Uses electrical signals, rapid communication.

Lobes of Cerebral Cortex & Functions

Frontal Lobe: Planning, decision-making, motor control.
Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing.
Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory.
Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.

Neurotransmitters

Serotonin: Mood regulation; affected by antidepressants.
Dopamine: Reward, movement; affected by cocaine.
Acetylcholine: Learning, memory; affected by nicotine.
Glutamate: Excitatory; affected by MSG.
GABA: Inhibitory; affected by alcohol.

Agonist vs. Antagonist

Agonist: Enhances neurotransmitter action.
Antagonist: Blocks neurotransmitter action.

Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic: Controls voluntary movements.
Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

Sympathetic: Activates "fight or flight" response.
Parasympathetic: Promotes "rest and digest."

Ch. 4 States of Consciousness

Automatic Processing

Tasks performed with little conscious effort (e.g., walking).

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.
Example: Listening to one conversation in a noisy room.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice unexpected stimuli when attention is focused elsewhere.
Example: Missing a gorilla in a video when counting basketball passes.

Circadian Rhythm

Biological cycle regulating sleep and wakefulness (~24 hours).

Melatonin

Hormone that promotes sleep; released in darkness.

Sleep Cycle & Dreaming

REM Sleep: Responsible for vivid dreaming.
Sleep Spindles: Bursts of activity during NREM sleep; associated with memory consolidation.

Narcolepsy vs. Insomnia

Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks.
Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreams

Freud’s theory: Dreams reveal unconscious desires.
Scientific Support: Largely unsupported by modern research.

Activation Synthesis Model

Dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Drug Classes

Depressants: Slow nervous system (e.g., alcohol).
Stimulants: Increase activity (e.g., caffeine).
Hallucinogens: Alter perception (e.g., LSD).

Dependence

Physiological Dependence: Body needs drug to function.
Psychological Dependence: Emotional craving for drug.

Hypnosis: Myths vs. Truths

Myth: Hypnosis can control behavior against will.
Truth: Hypnosis increases suggestibility but does not override free will.

Benefits of Meditation

Reduces stress, improves attention, enhances well-being.

Additional info: Expanded definitions, examples, and context were added to ensure completeness and academic quality.