Exam 1 Study Guide: Psychology Chapters 1-4 (Introduction, Research, Biopsychology, Consciousness)

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Ch. 1 Introduction & History of Psychology

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand how humans and animals think, feel, and act, using empirical methods to investigate observable actions and internal experiences.

Key Point: Psychology combines scientific inquiry with the study of both observable behavior and internal mental states.
Example: Studying how stress affects decision-making in college students.

Plato’s vs. Aristotle's Beliefs

Plato and Aristotle were early philosophers whose ideas influenced psychology.

Plato: Believed in innate knowledge; the mind is separate from the body.
Aristotle: Emphasized empirical observation; knowledge comes from experience.
Example: Plato’s theory supports nature, while Aristotle’s supports nurture.

Dualism (Descartes) vs. Materialism (Hobbes)

These theories address the relationship between mind and body.

Dualism (Descartes): Mind and body are separate entities.
Materialism (Hobbes): Only physical matter exists; mental processes are brain functions.
Example: Dualism suggests thoughts exist independently of the brain; materialism attributes thoughts to neural activity.

Father of Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt is considered the "father of psychology" for founding the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Behavioral Perspective and Beliefs

The behavioral perspective focuses on observable behavior and the effects of learning and environment.

Key Point: Behavior is shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
Example: Training a dog using rewards.

Psychologists Associated with Behaviorism

John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Ivan Pavlov are key figures.

Psychoanalytic Perspective and Beliefs

Founded by Sigmund Freud, this perspective emphasizes unconscious motives and early childhood experiences.

Key Point: Behavior is influenced by unconscious drives.
Example: Freudian slips reveal hidden thoughts.

Humanistic Perspective and Beliefs

Focuses on personal growth, free will, and self-actualization.

Key Point: Humans strive for meaning and fulfillment.
Example: Therapy that encourages self-exploration.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Structuralism: Analyzes the structure of the mind using introspection (Wundt, Titchener).
Functionalism: Focuses on the purpose of mental processes (James).
Example: Structuralism asks "what is consciousness?"; functionalism asks "what does consciousness do?"

Criticisms of Structuralism

Introspection is subjective and unreliable.
Cannot study unconscious processes.

Cognitive Revolution

The shift in the 1950s-60s from behaviorism to studying mental processes like memory, perception, and problem-solving.

Key Point: Led to modern cognitive psychology.

Mary Whiton Calkins

First female president of the APA; contributed to memory research.

George Sanchez

Pioneered research on cultural bias in intelligence testing.

Doll Study

Conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark; showed effects of segregation on children's self-esteem.

Ch. 2 Research Methods

5 Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Formulate a question
2. Develop a hypothesis
3. Collect data
4. Analyze results
5. Draw conclusions

Sample vs. Population

Population: Entire group of interest.
Sample: Subset of the population studied.
Example: Studying college students (population) by surveying 100 students (sample).

Operational Definition

Specifies how a concept is measured in a study.
Example: Defining "stress" as score on a questionnaire.

Case Study

In-depth study of one individual or group.
Example: Studying a patient with rare brain damage.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment.
Example: Watching children play in a park.

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated by researcher.
Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome.
Example: IV: Amount of sleep; DV: Test scores.

Positive vs. Negative Correlation

Positive: Both variables increase together.
Negative: One variable increases, the other decreases.
Example: Positive: Height and weight; Negative: Stress and health.

Correlation Coefficient

Measures strength and direction of relationship between variables.
Ranges from -1 (perfect negative) to +1 (perfect positive).
Example: (strong positive), (moderate negative).

Non-experimental vs. Experimental Design

Non-experimental: Observational, cannot determine causality.
Experimental: Manipulates variables, can determine causality.
Example: Survey (non-experimental); lab experiment (experimental).

Design Used to Determine Causality

Experimental design is used to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Theory vs. Hypothesis

Theory: Broad explanation based on evidence.
Hypothesis: Testable prediction derived from a theory.

Belmont Report and Principles

Ethical guidelines for research with human subjects.
Principles: Respect for persons, beneficence, justice.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

Committee that reviews research proposals for ethical standards.

Ch. 3 Brain & Biology

Parts of a Neuron and Their Functions

Dendrites: Receive signals.
Cell body (soma): Processes information.
Axon: Sends signals.
Axon terminals: Transmit signals to next neuron.

Role of the Myelin Sheath

Insulates axon, speeds up signal transmission.

General Functions of Brain Structures

Medulla: Controls vital functions (breathing, heart rate).
Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis, hunger, thirst.
Thalamus: Relays sensory information.
Hippocampus: Memory formation.

Thalamus & Olfaction

All senses except smell (olfaction) pass through the thalamus.

Pituitary Gland

"Master gland"; controls other endocrine glands.

Corpus Callosum

Connects left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Endocrine System vs. Nervous System

Endocrine: Uses hormones, slower, long-lasting effects.
Nervous: Uses electrical signals, fast, short-term effects.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex & Their Functions

Frontal: Planning, decision-making, movement.
Parietal: Sensory processing.
Temporal: Hearing, language.
Occipital: Vision.

Neurotransmitters: Effects and Drugs/Stimuli

Neurotransmitter	Effect	Drug/Stimulus
Serotonin	Mood, sleep, appetite	SSRIs (antidepressants)
Dopamine	Reward, movement	Cocaine, antipsychotics
Acetylcholine	Muscle action, memory	Nicotine, Alzheimer's drugs
Glutamate	Excitatory, learning	MSG (food additive)
GABA	Inhibitory, calming	Benzodiazepines

Agonist vs. Antagonist

Agonist: Enhances neurotransmitter action.
Antagonist: Blocks neurotransmitter action.

Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic: Controls voluntary movements.
Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

Sympathetic: Activates "fight or flight" response.
Parasympathetic: Promotes "rest and digest."

Ch. 4 States of Consciousness

Automatic Processing

Tasks performed with little conscious effort (e.g., driving familiar route).

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice unexpected objects when attention is elsewhere.
Example: Missing a gorilla in a video when counting basketball passes.

Circadian Rhythm

Biological cycle (~24 hours) regulating sleep, body temperature, etc.

Melatonin

Hormone that promotes sleep; released in darkness.

Sleep Cycle Responsible for Vivid Dreaming

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is associated with vivid dreams.

Sleep Spindles

Bursts of brain activity during Stage 2 sleep; may aid memory.

Narcolepsy vs. Insomnia

Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks.
Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreams

Freud: Dreams reveal unconscious desires.
Not strongly supported by scientific evidence.

Activation Synthesis Model

Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Depressants vs. Stimulants vs. Hallucinogens

Type	Effect	Example
Depressants	Slow CNS activity	Alcohol, benzodiazepines
Stimulants	Increase CNS activity	Caffeine, cocaine
Hallucinogens	Distort perception	LSD, psilocybin

Physiological vs. Psychological Dependence

Physiological: Body needs drug; withdrawal symptoms.
Psychological: Emotional craving for drug.

Myths vs. Truths about Hypnosis

Myth: Hypnosis can make people do anything.
Truth: Hypnosis increases suggestibility but cannot override morals.

Benefits of Meditation

Reduces stress, improves attention, enhances well-being.

Additional info: Expanded explanations and examples were added for clarity and completeness. Tables were recreated for neurotransmitters and drug types. All key terms are defined and contextualized for exam preparation.