Exam 2 Study Guide: Human Development, Sensation & Perception, and Variations in Consciousness

Chapter 9: Human Development

Developmental Norms and Theories

This section covers the foundational concepts and major theories in human development, focusing on cognitive and socioemotional growth across the lifespan.

• Developmental Norm: A standard or average age at which individuals display certain behaviors or abilities. These norms help identify typical patterns of development and can be used to detect developmental delays.

• Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget): Jean Piaget proposed that children progress through four stages of cognitive development:

  • Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years): Knowledge develops through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.

  • Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking grows, but logic is limited; egocentrism is common.

  • Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking develops for concrete events; understanding of conservation and perspective-taking improves.

  • Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical reasoning emerges.

• Socioemotional Development Theory (Erikson): Erik Erikson outlined eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a central conflict (e.g., trust vs. mistrust in infancy, identity vs. role confusion in adolescence).

• Attachment Patterns: Attachment refers to the emotional bond between a child and caregiver. Major theories include:

  • Secure Attachment: Child feels safe and confident to explore when caregiver is present.

  • Insecure Attachment: Includes avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized types, often resulting from inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving.

Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception

Structures and Functions of the Eye and Ear

This section explores the anatomy and physiology of the sensory organs, as well as the psychological processes involved in interpreting sensory information.

• Structures of the Eye: Includes the cornea, lens, retina, iris, and optic nerve. Each part plays a role in focusing light and transmitting visual information to the brain.

• Properties of Light: Light is characterized by wavelength (color), amplitude (brightness), and purity (saturation).

• Structures of the Ear: Divided into outer (pinna, ear canal), middle (ossicles), and inner ear (cochlea, auditory nerve). Responsible for detecting and transmitting sound waves.

Theories and Processes of Perception

• Major Theories of Color Perception:

  • Trichromatic Theory: The retina contains three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue light.

  • Opponent-Process Theory: Color perception is controlled by opposing neural processes (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

• Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing:

  • Bottom-Up Processing: Perception starts with sensory input, building up to a final perception.

  • Top-Down Processing: Perception is influenced by expectations, prior knowledge, and context.

• Gestalt Psychology: Emphasizes that the whole of perception is greater than the sum of its parts. Key principles include proximity, similarity, closure, and continuity.

• Major Theories of Auditory Perception:

  • Place Theory: Different frequencies stimulate different places on the basilar membrane.

  • Frequency Theory: The rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of a tone.

• Smell vs. Other Senses: Olfaction (smell) is unique because it bypasses the thalamus and has direct connections to brain areas involved in emotion and memory.

Chapter 5: Variations in Consciousness

Biological Rhythms and Sleep

This section examines the physiological and psychological aspects of consciousness, including sleep, dreaming, and altered states.

• Circadian Rhythm: The biological clock regulating daily cycles of sleep and wakefulness, typically following a 24-hour cycle.

• Sleep Stages: Sleep is divided into non-REM (NREM) and REM stages. NREM includes stages 1-3 (light to deep sleep), while REM is associated with vivid dreaming.

  • Stage 1: Light sleep, transition from wakefulness.

  • Stage 2: Deeper sleep, sleep spindles appear.

  • Stage 3: Deepest NREM sleep, slow-wave activity.

  • REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement, increased brain activity, most dreaming occurs.

Dreaming, Hypnosis, and Drug Use

• Theories of Dreaming:

  • Freud's Theory: Dreams reflect unconscious desires and conflicts.

  • Activation-Synthesis Model: Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

• Theories of Hypnosis:

  • Dissociation Theory: Hypnosis causes a split in consciousness.

  • Social-Cognitive Theory: Hypnotic behaviors result from expectations and social roles.

• Drug Dependence: A state in which a person requires a drug to function normally. Includes physical dependence (tolerance and withdrawal) and psychological dependence (cravings, compulsive use).

• Categories of Drugs:

  • Depressants: Slow down nervous system activity (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates).

  • Stimulants: Increase nervous system activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

  • Hallucinogens: Alter perception and mood (e.g., LSD, psilocybin).

  • Narcotics: Relieve pain and induce sleep (e.g., morphine, heroin).