Exam 2 Study Guide: Sensation & Perception, Learning, Memory, and Development

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Ch. 5 Sensation & Perception

Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation refers to the process by which our sensory organs receive and detect stimuli from the environment, while perception is the interpretation and conscious experience of those sensory inputs.

Sensation: Physical detection of environmental stimuli (e.g., light, sound, touch).
Perception: Psychological interpretation of sensory information (e.g., recognizing a face).
Example: Hearing a sound (sensation) and identifying it as a phone ringing (perception).

Transduction

Transduction is the process by which sensory receptors convert physical energy from the environment into neural signals that can be interpreted by the brain.

Key Point: Occurs in all sensory systems (e.g., photoreceptors in the eye convert light into electrical signals).
Example: The cochlea transduces sound waves into electrical impulses.

Absolute Threshold vs. Difference Threshold

The absolute threshold is the minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time, while the difference threshold (also called just noticeable difference, JND) is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Absolute Threshold: Lowest level of stimulus detected (e.g., a candle flame seen from 30 miles away).
Difference Threshold: Smallest change in stimulus detected (e.g., noticing a change in volume).
Formula: (Weber's Law; where is the change in stimulus, is the original intensity, is a constant).

Subliminal Perceptions (Reality vs. Myths)

Subliminal perception refers to the detection of stimuli below the threshold of conscious awareness. Research shows limited evidence for its effectiveness in influencing behavior.

Reality: Subliminal messages can be detected, but rarely influence actions significantly.
Myth: Subliminal advertising can control consumer behavior.

Signal Detection Theory

Signal detection theory explains how we detect signals amidst background noise, considering both sensory and cognitive factors.

Key Point: Detection depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the individual's decision criteria.
Example: A radiologist identifying a tumor in an X-ray.

Retina

The retina is a thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye responsible for receiving light and converting it into neural signals.

Function: Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) for vision.
Example: Damage to the retina can cause vision loss.

Cochlea

The cochlea is a spiral-shaped organ in the inner ear responsible for transducing sound waves into electrical signals.

Function: Contains hair cells that respond to vibrations.
Example: Cochlear implants can restore hearing by bypassing damaged hair cells.

The One Sense That Does Not Pass Through the Thalamus

The sense of smell (olfaction) is unique because its neural signals bypass the thalamus and go directly to the olfactory cortex.

Key Point: All other senses (vision, hearing, taste, touch) relay through the thalamus.

Basic Tastes

Humans recognize five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. "Spicy" is not a basic taste.

Not a Basic Taste: Spicy (it is a sensation, not a taste).

Gate Control Theory

The gate control theory explains how pain signals are modulated in the spinal cord before reaching the brain.

Key Point: "Gates" in the spinal cord can block or allow pain signals.
Example: Rubbing a sore area can reduce pain by closing the gate.

Ch. 6 Learning

Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves learning through association between stimuli, while operant conditioning involves learning through consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov's dogs salivating to a bell.
Operant Conditioning: Skinner's rats pressing a lever for food.

Pavlov’s Famous Dog Study (US, CS, UR, CR)

Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning by pairing a neutral stimulus (bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to elicit a conditioned response (salivation).

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Food
Unconditioned Response (UR): Salivation to food
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell
Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation to bell

Extinction

Extinction occurs when the conditioned response decreases after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Example: Bell rings without food, dog stops salivating.

Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

Example: Dog salivates to bell after a rest period.

Discrimination vs. Generalization

Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli, while generalization is responding to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination: Dog only salivates to a specific bell tone.
Generalization: Dog salivates to any bell-like sound.

Taste Aversion

Taste aversion is a learned avoidance of a particular food after it has been associated with illness.

Example: Avoiding sushi after food poisoning.

Little Albert Experiment

John Watson's experiment demonstrated classical conditioning of fear in a child by pairing a white rat with a loud noise.

Key Point: Showed that emotional responses can be conditioned.

Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it.

Reinforcement: Giving a treat for good behavior.
Punishment: Removing privileges for bad behavior.

Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus, while negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus.

Positive Reinforcement: Giving candy for homework completion.
Negative Reinforcement: Turning off a loud alarm when a task is completed.

Partial vs. Continuous Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement rewards every correct response, while partial reinforcement rewards only some responses.

Continuous: Every time a dog sits, it gets a treat.
Partial: Dog gets a treat only sometimes when it sits.

Reinforcement Schedule That Yields Highest Response Rate

The variable ratio schedule yields the highest response rate, as reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses.

Example: Slot machines in casinos.

Bobo Doll Experiment

The Bobo doll experiment by Albert Bandura is associated with observational learning, showing that children imitate aggressive behavior.

Key Point: Demonstrated the impact of modeling on behavior.

Latent Learning & Tolman’s Study

Latent learning is learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and is demonstrated when there is motivation to do so. Tolman showed rats could learn a maze without rewards.

Example: Rats learned maze layout but only showed it when food was present.

Ch. 8 Memory

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

Memory involves three processes: encoding (processing information), storage (maintaining information), and retrieval (accessing information).

Encoding: Transforming sensory input into a memory trace.
Storage: Retaining information over time.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

Sensory vs. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Memory

Memory is classified by duration and capacity.

Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information (milliseconds).
Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage (seconds to minutes).
Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage (minutes to lifetime).

Capacity of Short-Term Memory (George Miller)

George Miller found that short-term memory can hold about 7 ± 2 items.

Formula: items

Flashbulb Memory

Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.

Example: Remembering where you were during a major news event.

Encoding Specificity Principle

This principle states that retrieval is most effective when the cues present at encoding are also present at retrieval.

Example: Studying in the same environment as the test room improves recall.

Recall vs. Recognition

Recall is retrieving information without cues, while recognition is identifying information when presented with cues.

Recall: Essay questions.
Recognition: Multiple-choice questions.

Rich False Memories & Misinformation Effect

False memories are recollections of events that did not occur, often influenced by misinformation.

Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into memory.
Example: Witnesses misremembering details after hearing incorrect information.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

Explicit memory involves conscious recall, while implicit memory is unconscious and automatic.

Explicit: Facts and events (e.g., remembering a birthday).
Implicit: Skills and procedures (e.g., riding a bike).

Episodic Memories

Episodic memory is a type of explicit memory for personal experiences and events.

Example: Recalling your first day at college.

Anterograde vs. Retrograde Amnesia

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories, while retrograde amnesia is the loss of past memories.

Anterograde: Cannot remember events after injury.
Retrograde: Cannot remember events before injury.

The Case of H.M.

H.M. suffered from anterograde amnesia after surgery, unable to form new explicit memories but retained implicit memory.

Key Point: Demonstrated the role of the hippocampus in memory formation.

Basal Ganglia and Hippocampus

The basal ganglia are involved in procedural (implicit) memory, while the hippocampus is crucial for explicit memory formation.

Basal Ganglia: Skills and habits.
Hippocampus: Facts and events.

Ch. 9 Development

Three Categories of Human Development

Human development is typically divided into physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains.

Physical: Growth and changes in the body.
Cognitive: Changes in thinking, learning, and memory.
Psychosocial: Changes in emotions, personality, and social relationships.

Longitudinal Study Designs

Longitudinal studies follow the same individuals over time to observe changes and development.

Key Point: Useful for studying developmental trends.
Example: Tracking cognitive abilities from childhood to adulthood.

Critical Periods

Critical periods are specific times during development when certain skills or abilities are most easily acquired.

Example: Language acquisition in early childhood.

Case Study of Genie

Genie was a child who suffered extreme neglect, providing insight into the effects of missing critical periods for language development.

Key Point: Demonstrated the importance of early social and linguistic stimulation.

Focus of Piaget’s Stages of Development

Piaget's theory focuses on cognitive development, describing how children's thinking evolves through four stages.

Key Point: Emphasizes the development of logical thinking and problem-solving.

Object Permanence

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Example: Infants searching for a hidden toy.

Focus of Erik Erikson’s Stages of Development

Erikson's theory emphasizes psychosocial development, focusing on social and emotional challenges across the lifespan.

Key Point: Each stage involves a specific conflict to be resolved.

Teratogen

A teratogen is any environmental agent that can cause harm to a developing fetus.

Examples: Alcohol, drugs, viruses.

Language Development (Behaviorist vs. Chomsky)

Behaviorists believe language is learned through reinforcement and imitation, while Chomsky argued for an innate language acquisition device.

Behaviorist: Language learned through environment.
Chomsky: Language is biologically programmed.

Unique Feature of Brain Development in Teens

Adolescents experience significant brain development, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, affecting decision-making and impulse control.

Key Point: Increased risk-taking and emotional variability.

Mary Ainsworth and Attachment Styles

Mary Ainsworth researched attachment styles in children, identifying secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment.

Key Point: Attachment influences later social and emotional development.

Types of Parenting Styles

Parenting styles are classified as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved.

Authoritative: High warmth, high control.
Authoritarian: Low warmth, high control.
Permissive: High warmth, low control.
Uninvolved: Low warmth, low control.