Exam 3 Study Guide: Learning, Memory, and Cognition in Psychology

Ch.6 Learning

Elements of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a similar response.

• Key Terms: Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Conditioned Response (CR), Unconditioned Response (UR)

• Process: The US naturally elicits the UR. When the CS is paired repeatedly with the US, the CS begins to elicit the CR.

• Example: Pavlov's dogs salivating to the sound of a bell after repeated pairings with food.

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Both are forms of associative learning, but they differ in mechanisms and outcomes.

• Classical Conditioning: Learning through association between stimuli.

• Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement and punishment).

• Example: Skinner's box experiments with rats pressing levers for food.

Reinforcements and Punishments

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it.

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

• Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

Type	Definition	Example
Positive Reinforcement	Adding something pleasant	Giving a treat for good behavior
Negative Reinforcement	Removing something unpleasant	Turning off a loud noise when a task is completed
Positive Punishment	Adding something unpleasant	Scolding for misbehavior
Negative Punishment	Removing something pleasant	Taking away privileges

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules determine how and when behaviors are reinforced.

• Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

• Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.

• Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set period of time.

• Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time intervals.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences that follow.

• Key Process: Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.

• Example: Bandura's Bobo doll experiment.

Evolutionary Perspectives on Conditioning

Some forms of learning are influenced by evolutionary adaptations.

• Preparedness: Certain associations are learned more easily due to biological predispositions.

• Example: Taste aversion learning in animals.

Ch.7 Human Memory

Cognitive Functions in Memory

Memory involves several cognitive processes that filter, store, and retrieve information.

• Filtering: Selective attention determines what information enters memory.

• Elaboration: Connecting new information to existing knowledge enhances memory.

Levels of Processing

The depth at which information is processed affects how well it is remembered.

• Shallow Processing: Focus on surface features (e.g., appearance).

• Deep Processing: Focus on meaning and connections.

Pavlov's Approach

Pavlov's research laid the foundation for understanding associative learning and memory formation.

• Classical Conditioning: Association between stimuli and responses.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

This model describes memory as a flow of information through three stages.

• Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information.

• Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage and manipulation of information.

• Long-Term Memory: Relatively permanent storage of information.

Baddeley's Working Memory Model

Working memory is a system for temporarily holding and manipulating information.

• Components: Central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

This occurs when a person cannot fully retrieve a word or name but feels close to recalling it.

• Example: Struggling to remember a familiar term during conversation.

Ebbinghaus's Study

Ebbinghaus studied the rate of forgetting and the benefits of repetition.

• Forgetting Curve: Memory retention declines over time without rehearsal.

Schema in Memory

Schemas are mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

• Logic: Schemas guide encoding and retrieval by providing context.

Memory Taxonomy

Memory can be classified into different types based on duration and content.

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (e.g., facts, events).

• Implicit Memory: Unconscious skills and procedures.

Ch.8 Cognition and Language

Theories of Language Acquisition

Language acquisition is explained by several major theories.

• Nativist Theory: Language ability is innate (Chomsky).

• Learning Theory: Language is learned through reinforcement and imitation.

• Interactionist Theory: Language develops through social interaction and biological predispositions.

Language, Culture, and Thinking

Language influences thought and is shaped by cultural context.

• Linguistic Relativity: The structure of language affects cognitive processes.

Types of Problems

Problem-solving involves different types of problems.

• Well-Defined Problems: Clear goals and solutions.

• Ill-Defined Problems: Ambiguous goals and solutions.

Barriers to Problem-Solving

Several cognitive barriers can hinder effective problem-solving.

• Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for objects.

• Mental Set: Tendency to approach problems in a familiar way.

Strategies of Problem Solving

Effective problem-solving uses various strategies.

• Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee solutions.

• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making.

Decision-Making and Heuristics

Heuristics are rules of thumb that aid in decision-making but can lead to biases.

• Availability Heuristic: Judging likelihood based on ease of recall.

• Representativeness Heuristic: Judging based on similarity to a prototype.

Reliability and Validity in Psychological Tests

Reliability and validity are essential for evaluating psychological tests.

• Reliability: Consistency of test results.

• Validity: Accuracy in measuring what is intended.

The Flynn Effect

The Flynn effect refers to the observed rise in average intelligence test scores over time.

• Possible Causes: Improved nutrition, education, and environmental factors.

Additional info: Some explanations and examples were expanded for clarity and completeness.