Exam 3 Study Guide: Learning, Memory, and Cognition in Psychology

Ch.6 Learning

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process in psychology, first described by Ivan Pavlov. It involves learning through association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

• Key Elements: Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Conditioned Response (CR), Unconditioned Response (UR)

• Process: The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

• Example: Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate (CR) to the sound of a bell (CS) after it was paired with food (US).

Reinforcement and Punishment

Operant conditioning, described by B.F. Skinner, involves learning through consequences, such as reinforcements and punishments.

• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior. Can be positive (adding a pleasant stimulus) or negative (removing an unpleasant stimulus).

• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior. Can be positive (adding an unpleasant stimulus) or negative (removing a pleasant stimulus).

• Schedules of Reinforcement: Patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced (e.g., fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval).

Type	Definition	Example
Positive Reinforcement	Adding a pleasant stimulus	Giving a treat for good behavior
Negative Reinforcement	Removing an unpleasant stimulus	Turning off a loud noise when a task is completed
Positive Punishment	Adding an unpleasant stimulus	Scolding for misbehavior
Negative Punishment	Removing a pleasant stimulus	Taking away privileges

Observational Learning

Observational learning, or social learning, occurs when individuals acquire new behaviors by watching others. Albert Bandura's work is central to this concept.

• Fundamental Processes: Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

• Relationship to Reinforcement: Observational learning can occur without direct reinforcement; vicarious reinforcement is possible.

• Example: Children imitating aggressive behavior after watching adults in the Bobo doll experiment.

Evolutionary Perspectives on Conditioning

Some learning processes are influenced by evolutionary adaptations, such as taste aversion or preparedness to fear certain stimuli.

• Example: Rapid learning of taste aversion to foods that cause illness, which enhances survival.

Ch.7 Human Memory

Memory Systems and Models

Human memory is a complex system involving encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Several models explain its structure and function.

• Levels of Processing: Deeper, semantic processing leads to better memory retention than shallow, surface-level processing.

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Proposes three stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM).

• Baddeley's Working Memory Model: Expands STM to include multiple components: Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuospatial Sketchpad, and Episodic Buffer.

Memory Phenomena and Processes

• Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Temporary inability to retrieve a word or information, despite knowing it.

• Elaboration: Linking new information to existing knowledge to enhance memory.

• Schema: Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information; influence encoding and retrieval.

• Ebbinghaus's Study: Demonstrated the forgetting curve and the benefits of spaced repetition for memory retention.

Memory Taxonomy

Type of Memory	Description	Example
Explicit (Declarative)	Conscious recall of facts and events	Remembering a birthday
Implicit (Nondeclarative)	Unconscious skills and procedures	Riding a bicycle
Semantic	General knowledge and facts	Knowing the capital of France
Episodic	Personal experiences	Recalling your first day at college

Ch.8 Cognition and Language

Language Acquisition Theories

Language acquisition is explained by several major theories, including behaviorist, nativist, and interactionist perspectives.

• Behaviorist: Language learned through reinforcement and imitation.

• Nativist: Innate biological capacity for language (Chomsky's Universal Grammar).

• Interactionist: Combination of biological and social factors.

Language, Culture, and Thinking

Language influences thought and is shaped by cultural context. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language affects perception and cognition.

• Example: Different languages may categorize colors or spatial relationships uniquely.

Problem-Solving and Heuristics

Problem-solving involves identifying solutions to obstacles. Heuristics are mental shortcuts that facilitate decision-making but can lead to biases.

• Types of Problems: Well-defined (clear goals and solutions) vs. ill-defined (ambiguous goals).

• Barriers: Functional fixedness, mental set, confirmation bias.

• Strategies: Trial and error, algorithms, heuristics.

• Heuristics: Availability heuristic (judging likelihood by ease of recall), representativeness heuristic (judging by similarity to prototype).

Reliability and Validity in Psychological Testing

Reliability and validity are essential for evaluating psychological tests.

• Reliability: Consistency of test results over time.

• Validity: Extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

The Flynn Effect

The Flynn effect refers to the observed rise in average IQ scores over generations, attributed to factors such as improved education, nutrition, and environmental complexity.

• Implication: Intelligence is influenced by environmental and societal changes.