Exam 3 Study Guide: Learning, Memory, and Cognition in Psychology

Ch.6 Learning

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

• Key Elements: Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Unconditioned Response (UR), Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Conditioned Response (CR)

• Example: Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate (CR) to a bell (CS) after it was repeatedly paired with food (US).

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Both are forms of associative learning, but they differ in mechanisms and outcomes.

• Classical Conditioning: Learning through association between two stimuli.

• Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement or punishment) following a behavior.

• Example: Skinner's box experiments with rats pressing levers for food (operant), versus Pavlov's salivating dogs (classical).

Reinforcements and Punishments

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it.

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

• Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

	Reinforcement	Punishment
Positive	Give reward (e.g., treat)	Give penalty (e.g., scolding)
Negative	Remove discomfort (e.g., stop loud noise)	Remove reward (e.g., take away toy)

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules determine how often a behavior is reinforced, affecting learning and extinction rates.

• Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

• Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses (e.g., gambling).

• Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set period of time.

• Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time intervals.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing and imitating others, as described by Albert Bandura.

• Key Processes: Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.

• Example: Children imitating aggressive behaviors seen in adults (Bobo doll experiment).

Evolutionary Perspectives on Conditioning

Some learning processes are shaped by evolutionary pressures, making certain associations easier to learn due to survival value.

• Example: Taste aversion learning occurs rapidly because it helps avoid poisonous foods.

Ch.7 Human Memory

Memory Processes and Models

Memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Several models explain how memory works.

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Proposes three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

• Baddeley's Working Memory Model: Emphasizes active processing with components like the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.

Levels of Processing

Deeper, more meaningful processing of information leads to better memory retention.

• Shallow Processing: Focuses on surface features (e.g., appearance).

• Deep Processing: Focuses on meaning and connections.

Elaboration and Cognitive Functions

Elaboration involves linking new information to existing knowledge, enhancing memory.

• Filtering: Cognitive processes filter information to retain relevant details in memory.

Other Memory Phenomena

• Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Temporary inability to retrieve a word or name, despite feeling close to recall.

• Ebbinghaus's Study: Demonstrated the forgetting curve and the benefits of spaced repetition for memory retention.

• Schema: Organized knowledge structures that help interpret and remember information.

• Memory Taxonomy: Classification of memory types, such as explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory.

Ch.8 Cognition and Language

Theories of Language Acquisition

Several theories explain how humans acquire language.

• Nativist Theory (Chomsky): Proposes an innate language acquisition device.

• Learning Theory: Emphasizes reinforcement and imitation.

• Interactionist Theory: Combines innate abilities and environmental influences.

Language, Culture, and Thinking

Language influences thought and is shaped by cultural context.

• Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: The structure of language affects cognition and perception.

Problem Solving

• Types of Problems: Well-defined (clear goals and solutions) vs. ill-defined (ambiguous goals).

• Barriers: Functional fixedness, mental set, and confirmation bias can hinder problem-solving.

• Strategies: Algorithms (systematic procedures), heuristics (mental shortcuts), and insight.

Decision-Making and Heuristics

Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that simplify decision-making but can lead to biases.

• Types: Availability heuristic (judging likelihood by ease of recall), representativeness heuristic (judging by similarity to prototype).

Psychological Testing: Reliability and Validity

• Reliability: Consistency of test results over time.

• Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

The Flynn Effect

The Flynn effect refers to the observed rise in average IQ scores over generations, suggesting environmental factors influence intelligence.

Additional info: Some explanations and examples were expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard psychology curriculum.