Exam 3 Study Guide: Learning, Memory, and Cognition in Psychology

Ch.6 Learning

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process in psychology, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a similar response.

• Elements of Classical Conditioning:

  • CS (Conditioned Stimulus): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

  • US (Unconditioned Stimulus): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

  • CR (Conditioned Response): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

  • UR (Unconditioned Response): The natural response to the unconditioned stimulus.

• Example: Pavlov's dogs salivating to the sound of a bell after repeated pairings with food.

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Both are key learning processes, but they differ in mechanisms and outcomes.

• Classical Conditioning: Learning through association between stimuli.

• Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement and punishment) following behavior.

• Example: Skinner's box experiments with rats pressing levers for food.

Reinforcements and Punishments

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it.

• Types:

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Example: Giving a treat for good behavior (positive reinforcement); taking away privileges for misbehavior (negative punishment).

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules determine how and when behaviors are reinforced.

• Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

• Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.

• Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set period of time.

• Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time intervals.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others, also known as social learning.

• Fundamental Processes:

  • Attention: Noticing the behavior.

  • Retention: Remembering the behavior.

  • Reproduction: Ability to replicate the behavior.

  • Motivation: Having a reason to imitate the behavior.

• Relationship with Media: Media can serve as a model for observational learning, influencing behaviors and attitudes.

• Example: Children imitating aggressive behavior seen on television.

Evolutionary Perspectives on Conditioning

Some conditioning processes are influenced by evolutionary adaptations.

• Example: Taste aversion learning, where organisms quickly learn to avoid foods that make them ill.

Ch.7 Memory

Memory Processes

Memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

• Logic of Elaboration: Enhancing memory by connecting new information to existing knowledge.

• Levels of Processing: Deeper, meaningful processing leads to better memory retention.

• Pavlov's Approach: Classical conditioning as a form of associative memory.

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Describes memory as a flow through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

• Baddeley's Working Memory Model: Proposes a multi-component system for short-term memory, including the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.

Memory Phenomena

• Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Temporary inability to retrieve information that one knows is stored in memory.

• Ebbinghaus's Study: Demonstrated the forgetting curve and the benefits of spaced repetition.

• Schema in Memory: Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information; schemas influence encoding and retrieval.

• Memory Taxonomy: Classification of memory types, such as explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory.

Ch.8 Cognition and Language

Language Acquisition

Language development is influenced by biological, cognitive, and social factors.

• Major Theories:

  • Nativist Theory: Language ability is innate (Chomsky).

  • Learning Theory: Language is acquired through reinforcement and imitation.

  • Interactionist Theory: Combines innate ability and social interaction.

Language, Culture, and Thinking

Language shapes thought and is influenced by cultural context.

• Example: Linguistic relativity hypothesis suggests that language influences cognitive processes.

Problem-Solving

• Types of Problems: Well-defined (clear goals and solutions) vs. ill-defined (ambiguous goals).

• Barriers: Functional fixedness, mental set, and confirmation bias.

• Strategies: Algorithms (step-by-step procedures), heuristics (mental shortcuts), and insight.

Decision-Making and Heuristics

• Heuristics: Simple rules for making decisions, such as availability and representativeness heuristics.

• Example: Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind (availability heuristic).

Reliability and Validity in Psychological Tests

• Reliability: Consistency of a test's results.

• Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

The Flynn Effect

The Flynn effect refers to the observed rise in average intelligence test scores over time, attributed to environmental factors such as improved education and nutrition.

• Example: IQ scores have increased in many countries over the past century.

Additional info: Some explanations and examples were expanded for academic completeness and clarity.