Exam 3 Study Guide: Learning, Memory, and Cognition in Psychology

Ch.6 Learning

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a similar response.

• Key Elements: Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Conditioned Response (CR), Unconditioned Response (UR).

• Example: Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate (CR) to a bell (CS) after it was repeatedly paired with food (US).

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Both are forms of associative learning, but they differ in mechanisms and outcomes.

• Classical Conditioning: Learning through association between two stimuli.

• Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement or punishment) following a behavior.

• Example: Skinner's box experiments with rats pressing levers for food (operant), versus Pavlov's salivation (classical).

Reinforcements and Punishments

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it.

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

• Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules determine how often a behavior is reinforced, affecting learning and extinction rates.

• Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

• Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.

• Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set period of time.

• Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time intervals.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing and imitating others, as described by Albert Bandura.

• Key Processes: Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.

• Example: Children imitating aggressive behavior after watching adults (Bobo doll experiment).

Evolutionary Perspectives on Conditioning

Some learning processes are influenced by evolutionary adaptations, such as taste aversion learning, which helps organisms avoid harmful substances.

• Example: Rats quickly learn to avoid foods that made them sick, even after a single exposure.

Ch.7 Human Memory

Memory Processes and Models

Memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Several models explain how memory works.

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Proposes three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

• Baddeley's Working Memory Model: Emphasizes active processing with components like the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.

Levels of Processing

Deeper, more meaningful processing of information leads to better memory retention.

• Shallow Processing: Focuses on surface features (e.g., appearance).

• Deep Processing: Focuses on meaning and connections.

Elaboration and Cognitive Functions

Elaboration involves linking new information to existing knowledge, enhancing memory.

• Filtering: Cognitive functions like attention filter information for memory encoding.

Other Memory Phenomena

• Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Temporary inability to retrieve a known word.

• Ebbinghaus's Study: Demonstrated the forgetting curve and the benefits of spaced repetition.

• Schema: Organized knowledge structures that help with encoding and retrieval.

• Memory Taxonomy: Classification of memory types (e.g., explicit vs. implicit, episodic vs. semantic).

Ch.8 Cognition and Language

Theories of Language Acquisition

Several theories explain how humans acquire language.

• Behaviorist Theory: Language learned through reinforcement and imitation.

• Nativist Theory (Chomsky): Humans have an innate language acquisition device.

• Interactionist Theory: Combines innate abilities and environmental influences.

Language, Culture, and Thinking

Language influences thought and is shaped by cultural context (linguistic relativity hypothesis).

Problem Solving

• Types of Problems: Well-defined (clear goals and solutions) vs. ill-defined (ambiguous goals).

• Barriers: Functional fixedness, mental set, confirmation bias.

• Strategies: Algorithms (systematic procedures), heuristics (mental shortcuts).

Decision-Making and Heuristics

Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that simplify decision-making but can lead to biases.

• Types: Availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, anchoring heuristic.

Reliability and Validity in Psychological Testing

• Reliability: Consistency of a test's results.

• Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

The Flynn Effect

The Flynn effect refers to the observed rise in average IQ scores over generations, possibly due to environmental factors such as education and nutrition.