Chapter 9

Foundations of Group Behavior

Introduction

This chapter explores the psychological foundations of group behavior within organizations, focusing on group types, development models, roles, norms, status, size, cohesion, and decision-making processes. Understanding these concepts is essential for analyzing how groups function and influence individual and collective outcomes in organizational settings.

Types of Groups

Formal and Informal Groups

Groups are defined as two or more individuals who interact and are interdependent, coming together to achieve specific objectives. Groups can be classified as either formal or informal:

• Formal groups: Defined by the organization's structure, such as work teams, committees, or task forces.

• Informal groups: Alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined, such as friendship or interest groups.

Example: A project team assigned by management is a formal group, while a group of employees who lunch together is an informal group.

Social Identity Theory

Social identity theory examines when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups. Emotional reactions to group success or failure are tied to self-esteem, and social identities help individuals understand their place within social contexts.

• Relational identification: Identifying with specific individuals in the group.

• Collective identification: Identifying with the group as a whole.

Ingroups and Outgroups

Social categorization leads to the formation of ingroups (those who share a social identity) and outgroups (those who do not). This process can result in:

• Ingroup favoritism: Viewing members of one's own group as superior and perceiving outgroup members as homogenous.

Example: Employees in one department may see themselves as distinct and superior to those in another department.

Punctuated-Equilibrium Model of Group Development

Stages of Group Development

The punctuated-equilibrium model describes how groups progress through periods of stability and rapid change:

• Phase 1: Initial meeting and low performance.

• Transition: A midpoint where the group experiences a burst of activity and redefines its approach.

• Phase 2: Increased performance leading to completion.

Diagram: The model is often depicted as a graph with performance on the y-axis and time on the x-axis, showing a sharp transition at the midpoint.

Role Requirements in Groups

Role Concepts

A role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.

• Role perception: An individual's understanding of how to act in a given situation.

• Role expectations: How others believe one should act in a given situation.

• Psychological contract: The unwritten agreement that sets out mutual expectations between individuals and the organization.

Role Conflict

Role conflict occurs when an individual faces divergent role expectations, such as conflicting demands from different groups (interrole conflict).

Example: An employee may experience conflict between the expectations of their work group and their family group.

Role Play and Assimilation

Research such as Philip Zimbardo's prison experiment demonstrates how individuals can quickly assimilate roles that differ from their inherent personalities, highlighting the power of situational factors in shaping behavior.

Norms and Their Influence on Behavior

Definition and Function of Norms

Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group, shared by its members. Norms guide behavior and help maintain order.

Norms and Emotions

Group norms influence both individual and collective emotional experiences. Studies show that emotions can be contagious within groups, and norms dictate how emotions are expressed and interpreted.

Example: In a task group, if most members express enthusiasm, others may adopt similar emotions due to group norms.

Norms and Culture

Norms vary across cultures. Collectivist cultures tend to emphasize group harmony and consensus, while individualist cultures prioritize personal achievement and autonomy. Cultural orientation can shift over time due to prolonged exposure to different societies.

Status and Size Differences in Groups

Status

Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. According to status characteristics theory, status is derived from:

• The power a person wields over others

• A person's ability to contribute to group goals

• An individual's personal characteristics

Status and Group Dynamics

• High-status individuals often have more freedom to deviate from norms and are more assertive in group interactions.

• Status inequity can create resentment and corrective behavior within groups.

Group Size

• Large groups are effective for gathering diverse input.

• Smaller groups are better for implementing decisions and actions.

• Social loafing: The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working alone.

Cohesion and Group Effectiveness

Relationship Between Cohesiveness, Norms, and Productivity

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree to which members are attracted to and motivated to remain part of the group. Cohesiveness interacts with group norms to influence productivity:

Cohesiveness	Performance Norms	Productivity
High	High	High productivity
High	Low	Moderate productivity
Low	High	Moderate productivity
Low	Low	Low productivity

Group Decision Making

Strengths and Weaknesses

• Strengths: More complete information, increased diversity of views, increased acceptance of solutions.

• Weaknesses: Time-consuming, conformity pressures, dominance of a few members, ambiguous responsibility.

Effectiveness and Efficiency Criteria

• Accuracy

• Speed

• Creativity

• Acceptance

Groupthink and Groupshift

• Groupthink: Group pressures for conformity deter critical appraisal of alternative viewpoints.

• Groupshift: A change between a group's decision and an individual member's decision, often leading to more extreme positions.

Symptoms of Groupthink

• Self-censorship

• Illusion of invulnerability

• Illusions of unanimity

• Belief in inherent morality

• Direct pressure on dissenters

• Collective rationalization

• Emergence of self-appointed mind guards

• Stereotypes of other groups

Minimizing Groupthink

• Encourage thoughtfulness and criticism

• Leader refrains from expressing opinions until alternatives are considered

• Gather information from outside sources

• Assign a devil's advocate

• Hold a second meeting for important decisions

Group Decision Making Techniques

• Interacting groups: Members meet face-to-face and rely on verbal and nonverbal communication, but may experience conformity pressures.

• Brainstorming: Group leader states the problem, members freely suggest alternatives, criticism is withheld, and unusual ideas are encouraged.

• Nominal group technique: Restricts discussion during decision making; members work independently, then share and rank ideas. Nominal groups often outperform brainstorming groups.

Steps for Nominal Group Technique

1. Each member independently writes down ideas.

2. Each member presents one idea to the group.

3. Ideas are discussed for clarity.

4. Each member rank-orders the ideas.

5. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking is chosen as the final decision.

Evaluating Group Effectiveness

Criteria	Interacting	Brainstorming	Nominal
Quality of ideas	Low	Moderate	High
Conformity pressure	High	Low	Moderate
Cost	Low	Low	Low
Interpersonal conflict	High	Low	Moderate
Commitment to solution	Moderate	Moderate	Moderate
Group cohesiveness	High	High	Moderate

Additional info: These notes expand on the original slides and text, providing definitions, examples, and structured tables for clarity and exam preparation.