Foundations of Psychological Science and Research Methods: Study Guide

Psychological Science

Five Schools of Psychology

The field of psychology has evolved through several major schools of thought, each with distinct approaches to understanding human behavior and mental processes.

• Structuralism: Focuses on analyzing the structure of consciousness using introspection. Example: Describing sounds by their quality, loudness, and feelings evoked. Founders: Wundt, Titchener

• Functionalism: Examines the purpose or function of mental processes and behavior for adaptation. Example: Fear evolved to aid survival (adaptive function). Inspired by: Darwin

• Behaviorism: Studies observable behavior only, focusing on effects of rewards and punishments. Example: Rat presses lever for food; reinforcement shapes behavior. Founders: Watson, Skinner

• Psychodynamic: Investigates unconscious drives and repressed childhood conflicts. Example: Therapist helps patient uncover repressed memories influencing current anxiety. Founder: Freud

• Cognitivism: Explores mental processes like thinking, memory, and decision-making. Example: Child problem-solving strategies; brain as information processor. Founders: Piaget, Miller

Matching Examples from Lecture Scenarios

• Structuralism: Describe sounds → quality, loudness, feelings + introspection

• Cognitivism: Child problem-solving changes → brain as information processor → mental processes

• Psychodynamic: Therapist explores repressed childhood memories → Freud

• Functionalism: Fear evolved to aid survival + adaptive function

• Behaviorism: Rat presses lever for food + reinforcement shapes behavior

Research Methods

Types of Relationships

Understanding the relationship between variables is central to psychological research. Relationships can be classified as follows:

• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together (e.g., time spent studying & exam score).

• Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

• Zero Correlation: No relationship (e.g., shoe size & exam score).

• Curvilinear Relationship: Relationship increases then decreases (e.g., number of tennis balls & dog happiness – diminishing returns).

Research Designs

Psychological research employs several key designs, each suited to different types of questions and data.

Method	Definition	Purpose / Example
Naturalistic Observation	Observe behavior in natural setting without interference	Watching door-holding on campus; kids at recess
Case Study	Intensive study of one person / small group	Brain-injury patient; artist Williams; CTE athletes
Survey / Self-Report	Questionnaires / interviews about attitudes / beliefs	Public opinion on climate change
Correlational Design	Examines relationships between variables	Attendance vs grades; does attending lectures relate to exam scores?
Experimental Design	Manipulate independent variable (IV) to determine cause & effect on dependent variable (DV)	Testing "Does lecture attendance cause better exam scores?"

Correlation ≠ Causation: Only experiments can show cause-and-effect because they manipulate variables and use random assignment.

Design Activities (Class Examples)

• "Love Is Blind" Example:

  • Research Question: Can people fall in love without seeing each other?

  • IV: Visual access (see partner vs not see partner)

  • DV: Relationship outcomes / marriage decision / self-reported closeness

  • Design note: Must manipulate IV and measure DV to qualify as an experiment.

• "Squid Game" Example:

  • Explores how media uses "social experiment" loosely; real experiments require controlled conditions and ethical consent.

Identifying the Design from Scenarios

Scenario	Correct Method
Observing children at recess	Naturalistic Observation
Tracking one brain-injury patient over time	Case Study
Watching phone use in cafés	Naturalistic Observation
Online questionnaire on climate change beliefs	Survey / Self-Report

Concept Checks & Application Tips

• Naturalistic Observation: Watch only; no interference.

• Case Study: In-depth on one subject.

• Survey: Ask people directly.

• Correlational: Measure two variables to see if related.

• Experimental: Actively change something; see effect.

Core Definitions for Research

Variables and Experimental Terms

• Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher (cause).

• Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured (effect or outcome).

• Confound: An extraneous variable that may affect the DV, making it difficult to interpret results.

Example Equation:

• Experimental design: $\text{DV} = f(\text{IV})$

Study Strategy for the Exam

Recommended Steps

1. Focus on lecture content only (test is lecture-based).

2. Review each topic’s core definitions and examples.

3. Know the five schools and their key differences.

4. Understand research method terms (IV, DV, confounds, types).

5. Practice writing short answers: Apply a concept to a new example.

6. Don’t memorize iClicker questions; focus on concepts.

7. Apply concepts creatively: Use reality-show examples for method application.

Summary Checklist (Before Exam)

• Five schools of psychology: key founders and concepts

• Correlation types (+ / – / zero / curvilinear)

• Identify research method from scenario

• IV vs DV vs confound

• Experimental vs correlational study

• Ethical considerations (basic awareness)

• Short answer practice (define + apply)

Sample Questions & Applications

Example Multiple Choice Questions

• Confirmation Bias: Believing one’s friendship is based on perfect communication despite evidence to the contrary.

• Positive Correlation: Time spent studying & exam score.

• Experimental Design: To test if lecture attendance causes better exam performance, use random assignment and manipulate attendance.

Research Method Identification

• Observing children’s behavior without interference: Naturalistic Observation

• Studying a single patient’s recovery: Case Study

• Surveying attitudes via questionnaire: Survey / Self-Report

• Testing effects of manipulated variables: Experimental Design

Additional info: Some context and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness, based on standard introductory psychology curriculum.