Foundations of Psychological Science and Research Methods: Study Guide

Psychological Science

Five Schools of Psychology

The field of psychology has developed through several major schools of thought, each with distinct approaches to understanding human behavior and mental processes.

• Structuralism: Focuses on analyzing the structure of consciousness using introspection. Example: Describing sounds by their quality, loudness, and feelings evoked. Founders: Wundt, Titchener.

• Functionalism: Examines the purpose and function of mental processes and behavior for adaptation. Example: Fear evolved to aid survival (adaptive function). Inspired by: Darwin.

• Behaviorism: Studies observable behavior only, focusing on effects of rewards and punishments. Example: Rat presses lever for food; reinforcement shapes behavior. Founders: Watson, Skinner.

• Psychodynamic: Investigates unconscious drives and repressed childhood conflicts. Example: Therapist helps patient uncover repressed memories influencing anxiety. Founder: Freud.

• Cognitivism: Explores mental processes like thinking, memory, and decision-making. Example: Child problem-solving changes as brain develops; mind actively processes information. Founders: Piaget, Miller.

Key Terms and Concepts

• Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

• Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preconceptions.

• Belief Perseverance: Maintaining a belief despite contradictory evidence.

• Not-Me Fallacy: The belief that one is immune to errors in thinking that affect other people.

Research Methods in Psychology

Types of Relationships

Psychological research often examines relationships between variables. Understanding these relationships is crucial for interpreting study results.

• Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other also increases. Example: Time spent studying and exam score.

• Zero Correlation: No relationship between variables. Example: Shoe size and exam score.

• Curvilinear Relationship: Relationship increases then decreases (or vice versa). Example: Number of tennis balls and dog happiness (diminishing returns).

Research Designs

Different research designs are used to answer psychological questions. Each has unique strengths and limitations.

Method	Definition	Purpose / Example
Naturalistic Observation	Observe behavior in natural setting without interference	Watching door-holding on campus; observing children at recess
Case Study	Intensive study of one person or small group	Brain-injury patient; historical cases (e.g., Phineas Gage)
Survey / Self-Report	Questionnaires/interviews about attitudes or beliefs	Public opinion on climate change; online questionnaires
Correlational Study	Examines relationships between variables	Attendance vs grades; time spent studying vs exam scores
Experimental Design	Manipulate independent variable (IV) to determine cause/effect on dependent variable (DV)	Testing if lecture attendance causes better exam performance

Correlation ≠ Causation: Only experiments can show cause-and-effect because they manipulate variables and use random assignment.

Identifying Research Methods from Scenarios

Scenario	Correct Method
Observing children at recess	Naturalistic Observation
Tracking one brain-injury patient over time	Case Study
Watching phone use in cafés	Naturalistic Observation
Online questionnaire on climate change beliefs	Survey / Self-Report

Variables in Experiments

• Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

• Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured; the outcome.

• Confound: An extraneous variable that may affect the DV, making it difficult to interpret results.

Example: In a study testing if lecture attendance improves exam scores, attendance is the IV and exam score is the DV.

Designing Experiments: Reality TV Example

Reality TV shows can be used to illustrate experimental design in psychology.

• Research Question: Can people fall in love without seeing each other?

• IV: Visual access (see partner vs not see partner)

• DV: Relationship outcomes (marriage decision, self-reported closeness)

• Measurement Examples: Behavior ratings, self-report surveys (1–10 connectedness scale)

• Design Note: Must manipulate IV and measure DV to qualify as an experiment.

Study Strategies for Exam Success

Effective Preparation Tips

• Focus on lecture content only; the test is lecture-based.

• Review each topic’s core definitions and examples.

• Know the five schools of psychology and their key differences.

• Understand research method terms (IV, DV, confounds).

• Practice writing short answers: Apply concepts to new examples.

• Don’t memorize iClicker questions; focus on understanding concepts.

• Apply concepts creatively, such as using reality-show scenarios for experimental design.

Summary Checklist (Before Exam)

• Five schools of psychology: key founders and concepts

• Correlation types (+/–/zero/curvilinear)

• Identify research method from scenario

• IV vs DV vs confound

• Experimental vs correlational study

• Ethical considerations (basic awareness)

• Short answer practice (define + apply)

Appendix: Key Equations and Definitions

• Correlation Coefficient: Measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables. $r = \frac{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})(y_i - \bar{y})}{\sqrt{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})^2 \sum (y_i - \bar{y})^2}}$

• Experimental Design: $\text{Outcome} = f(\text{IV}, \text{Control Variables})$