Foundations of Psychology: Key Concepts and Biological Bases

Week 1: Introduction to Psychology Science

What is Psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases.

• Definition: The discipline concerned with the mind and behavior.

• Applications: Clinical, counseling, educational, and research settings.

Scientific Method in Psychology

The scientific method is a systematic approach to research that involves observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and analysis.

• Steps: Observation, hypothesis, experiment, analysis, conclusion.

• Importance: Ensures objectivity and reliability in psychological research.

Biopsychosocial Model

This model integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness.

• Biological: Genetics, neurochemistry.

• Psychological: Emotions, attitudes.

• Social: Family, culture.

Empiricism and Determinism

• Empiricism: Knowledge comes from experience and observation.

• Determinism: Behavior is caused by preceding factors, not free will.

Phrenology

An outdated theory that claimed personality traits could be determined by the shape of the skull.

Nature vs. Nurture

This debate concerns the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development.

• Nature: Genetics, biology.

• Nurture: Environment, upbringing.

Major Psychological Approaches

• Behaviourism: Focuses on observable behavior and the effects of learning.

• Cognitive Psychology: Studies mental processes such as perception, memory, and reasoning.

• Humanistic Psychology: Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.

Big Thinkers in Psychology

Key contributors and their primary contributions:

• Fechner: Founder of psychophysics.

• Darwin: Evolutionary theory.

• Freud: Psychoanalysis.

• Wundt: Established first psychology lab.

• James: Functionalism.

• Pavlov: Classical conditioning.

• Skinner: Operant conditioning.

• Watson: Behaviorism.

• Rogers: Humanistic psychology.

• Hebb: Neuropsychology.

• Penfield: Brain mapping.

Research Methods in Psychology

Basic and Applied Research

• Basic Research: Seeks to increase scientific knowledge.

• Applied Research: Solves practical problems.

Characteristics of Quality Scientific Research

• Objectivity and subjectivity

• Generalizability

• Informed consent

• Hypothesis

• Variables

• Operational definition

• Reliability and validity

• Sources of bias

• Single-blind and double-blind studies

Types of Research Design

• Quantitative Research: Uses numerical data and statistical analysis.

• Qualitative Research: Explores phenomena through interviews, observations, and open-ended questions.

Descriptive Statistics

• Frequency: Number of occurrences.

• Normal and Skewed Distribution: Patterns of data spread.

• Central Tendency: Mean, median, mode.

Measure	Definition
Mean	Average value ($\text{Mean} = \frac{\sum x}{n}$)
Median	Middle value in ordered data
Mode	Most frequently occurring value

Biological Psychology

Genetic Basis of Behaviour

• Principles of Hereditary Transmission:

  • Chromosomes

  • Genes

  • DNA

  • Alleles

• Behavioural Genomics: Study of how genes influence behavior.

• Dominant vs. Recessive: Dominant alleles mask recessive ones.

• Epigenetics: Environmental factors affecting gene expression.

• Methylation: Chemical modification of DNA affecting gene activity.

• Genotype and Phenotype: Genotype is genetic makeup; phenotype is observable traits.

• Behavioural Genetics: Examines genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Neurobiological Basis of Behaviour

• Three main functions of the nervous system: sensory input, integration, motor output.

• Central and peripheral nervous system

• Somatic and autonomic nervous system

• Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

• Parts of the brain: location and function

• Neurons and glial cells

• Dendrite and synapse/synaptic cleft

• Neurotransmitters (8 major types)

• Action potential of neurons ($\text{Action Potential}$: rapid change in membrane potential)

• Endocrine system: glands and hormones

• Neuroplasticity: brain's ability to change and adapt

Sensation and Perception

Overview

Sensation is the process of detecting stimuli, while perception is the interpretation of those stimuli.

• Diagram of sensory information processing

• Psychophysics: Weber and Fechner's Law

• Absolute threshold, difference threshold, just noticeable difference

• Signal detection theory

• Transduction: conversion of stimulus to neural signal

• Sensory adaptation

• Subliminal information processing

• Figure-ground perception

• Gestalt principles of perceptual organization

• Perceptual constancy

• Bottom-up and top-down processing

• Influence on attention

Part 2: Sensory Systems

Visual System

• Structure of the eye

• Myopia and hyperopia

• Rods and cones

• Pathway of sensory information from eye to occipital lobe

Auditory System

• Frequency, amplitude, pitch, timbre, decibel

• Outer ear, middle ear, inner ear (cochlea)

Component	Function
Outer ear	Collects sound waves
Middle ear	Transmits vibrations
Inner ear (cochlea)	Converts vibrations to neural signals

Vestibular System

• Balance and spatial orientation

Somatosensory System

• Sensation of touch

• Pain sensation: acute vs. chronic pain

• Role of brain in pain perception

Other Senses

• Sense of smell: olfactory receptors

• Sense of taste: taste receptors

• Olfactory and gustatory perception

Additional info: Some content was expanded for clarity and completeness, including definitions, examples, and brief explanations of key terms and systems.