Foundations of Psychology: Key Concepts and Biological Bases

Midterm Exam Study Guide: Psychology Science and Biological Bases

This study guide summarizes the foundational topics in psychology, including scientific methods, major theoretical perspectives, research design, and the biological bases of behavior. It is structured to help students prepare for exams covering introductory chapters and lecture material.

Psychology as a Science

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It uses empirical methods to understand how individuals think, feel, and act.

• Scientific Method: A systematic approach to research involving observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and analysis.

• Biopsychosocial Model: An integrative model considering biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and behavior.

• Empiricism and Determinism: Empiricism emphasizes knowledge through observation; determinism suggests behavior is caused by preceding factors.

• Phrenology: An outdated theory linking skull shape to personality traits.

• Nature vs. Nurture: The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to behavior.

• Behaviourism: Focuses on observable behaviors and the effects of learning and environment.

• Cognitive Psychology: Studies mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.

• Humanistic Psychology: Emphasizes individual potential and self-actualization.

Big Thinkers in Psychology

• Fechner: Founder of psychophysics, studied the relationship between stimuli and perception.

• Darwin: Introduced evolutionary theory, influencing comparative psychology.

• Freud: Developed psychoanalysis, focusing on unconscious processes.

• Wundt: Established the first psychology laboratory, known as the father of experimental psychology.

• James: Promoted functionalism, studying the purpose of consciousness.

• Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning through experiments with dogs.

• Skinner: Developed operant conditioning, emphasizing reinforcement and punishment.

• Watson: Advocated for behaviorism, focusing on observable behavior.

• Rogers: Humanistic psychologist, developed client-centered therapy.

• Hebb: Proposed the concept of neural networks and learning.

• Penfield: Neurosurgeon known for mapping the brain's functions.

Research Methods in Psychology

Psychological research employs various methods to ensure scientific rigor and validity.

• Basic vs. Applied Research: Basic research seeks fundamental knowledge; applied research addresses practical problems.

• Characteristics of Quality Scientific Research: Includes objectivity, generalizability, reliability, validity, and ethical standards.

• Objectivity and Subjectivity: Objectivity involves unbiased observation; subjectivity includes personal perspectives.

• Generalizability: The extent to which findings apply to broader populations.

• Informed Consent: Participants must be informed about the study and agree to participate.

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

• Variables: Factors that can change or be manipulated in research.

• Operational Definition: Defining variables in measurable terms.

• Reliability and Validity: Reliability is consistency of results; validity is accuracy in measuring what is intended.

• Sources of Bias: Factors that can distort research findings (e.g., experimenter bias, sampling bias).

• Single-blind and Double-blind Studies: Single-blind: participants unaware of group assignment; double-blind: both participants and researchers are unaware.

• Types of Research Design:

  • Quantitative Research: Involves numerical data and statistical analysis.

  • Qualitative Research: Involves non-numerical data, such as interviews and observations.

• Frequency: The number of occurrences of a particular event.

• Normal and Skewed Distribution: Normal distribution is symmetrical; skewed distribution is asymmetrical.

• Central Tendency: Measures that describe the center of a data set (mean, median, mode).

• Mean, Median, Mode:

  • Mean: Arithmetic average.

  • Median: Middle value in a data set.

  • Mode: Most frequently occurring value.

Biological Psychology

Biological psychology explores the links between biological processes and behavior.

• Heredity (Genetic Basis of Behaviour):

  • Principles of Hereditary Transmission: Involves chromosomes, genes, DNA, and alleles.

  • Behavioural Genomics: Study of how genes influence behavior.

  • Dominant vs. Recessive: Dominant alleles express traits over recessive ones.

  • Epigenetics: Study of how environment affects gene expression.

  • Methylation: A chemical process that can turn genes on or off.

  • Genotype and Phenotype: Genotype is genetic makeup; phenotype is observable traits.

  • Behavioural Genetics: Examines the role of genetics in behavior.

• Neurobiological Basis of Behaviour:

  • Functions of the Nervous System: Central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (all other nerves).

  • Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System: Somatic controls voluntary movements; autonomic regulates involuntary functions.

  • Sympathetic and Parasympathetic: Sympathetic prepares for action; parasympathetic calms the body.

  • Neurons and Glial Cells: Neurons transmit signals; glial cells support neurons.

  • Dendrite and Synapse/Synaptic Cleft: Dendrites receive signals; synapse is the gap between neurons.

  • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the brain (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).

  • Action Potential: Electrical impulse that travels down a neuron.

  • Endocrine System: Glands that secrete hormones affecting behavior.

  • Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt.

Sensation and Perception

Sensation is the process of detecting stimuli, while perception is interpreting those stimuli.

• Diagram of Sensory Processing: Illustrates how sensory information is received and processed.

• Psychophysics: Study of the relationship between physical stimuli and perception (Weber and Fechner's Law).

• Thresholds:

  • Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus needed for detection.

  • Difference Threshold: Smallest detectable difference between stimuli.

  • Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The minimal change in a stimulus that can be detected.

• Signal Detection Theory: Explains how we detect signals amid noise.

• Transduction: Conversion of physical energy into neural signals.

• Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to constant stimulation.

• Subliminal Information Processing: Processing of information below conscious awareness.

• Gestalt Principles: Rules for organizing sensory input (e.g., figure-ground, proximity, similarity).

• Perceptual Constancy: Perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input.

• Bottom-up vs. Top-down Processing: Bottom-up: data-driven; top-down: influenced by expectations.

• Attention: Focused mental processing of specific information.

Biological Bases of Sensation

Different sensory systems process information from the environment and contribute to perception.

• Visual System:

  • Structure of the Eye: Includes cornea, lens, retina, etc.

  • Myopia and Hyperopia: Nearsightedness and farsightedness.

  • Rods and Cones: Photoreceptors for low light and color vision.

  • Pathway of Sensory Information: From retina to occipital lobe.

• Auditory System:

  • Frequency, Amplitude, Pitch, Timbre: Properties of sound waves.

  • Decibel: Unit of sound intensity.

  • Outer, Middle, Inner Ear: Structures involved in hearing; cochlea is the main organ for transduction.

• Vestibular System: Senses balance and spatial orientation.

• Somatosensory System:

  • Senses of Touch and Pain: Mechanisms for detecting physical stimuli.

  • Acute vs. Chronic Pain: Short-term vs. long-lasting pain.

  • Role of Brain in Pain: Brain regions involved in pain perception.

• Other Senses:

  • Taste (Gustation): Receptors for detecting flavors.

  • Smell (Olfaction): Receptors and pathways for odor detection.

Example: Mean, Median, and Mode Calculation

Given the data set: 2, 4, 4, 6, 8

• Mean: $\frac{2+4+4+6+8}{5} = 4.8$

• Median: 4 (middle value)

• Mode: 4 (most frequent value)

Additional info:

• Some content was expanded for clarity and completeness, such as definitions and examples of key terms and processes.