Fundamentals of Psychology: Exam Study Guide

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology

The Goals of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Its main goals are to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes.

• Describe: Observing behavior and noting everything about it.

• Explain: Understanding why a behavior occurs.

• Predict: Anticipating when and under what conditions a behavior will occur.

• Control: Modifying behavior to improve outcomes.

Basic and Applied Research

• Basic research: Conducted to increase fundamental knowledge and understanding.

• Applied research: Focuses on solving practical problems.

Naturalistic Observation

• Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

• Provides real-world validity but lacks control over variables.

Laboratory Observation

• Observing behavior in a controlled environment.

• Allows for manipulation of variables but may lack ecological validity.

Wilhelm Wundt

• Known as the "father of psychology."

• Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

• Focused on introspection and the study of conscious experience.

Chapter 2: Biology and Behaviour

Communication Between Neurons: The Synapse

Neurons communicate through synapses, which are tiny gaps between neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.

• Synapse: The junction between two neurons.

• Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap.

• Action potential: The electrical impulse that travels down the axon to the synapse.

Chapter 4: States of Consciousness

Circadian Rhythms and Sleep

Circadian rhythms are biological cycles that occur approximately every 24 hours, influencing sleep-wake cycles and other bodily functions.

• Circadian rhythm: The body's internal clock regulating sleep and wakefulness.

• Sleep stages: Include REM (Rapid Eye Movement) and NREM (Non-REM) stages.

• REM sleep: Characterized by rapid eye movements and vivid dreams.

• NREM sleep: Includes stages from light to deep sleep.

Sleep Disorders

• Major sleep disorders: Insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, and parasomnias.

• Drug dependence: Substance use can disrupt sleep patterns.

Sleepwalking (Somniloquy)

• Occurs during deep NREM sleep.

• Individuals may perform complex behaviors while asleep.

Chapter 5: Learning

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a similar response.

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Naturally elicits a response.

• Conditioned stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, now elicits a response after association.

• Classical conditioning in everyday life: Examples include phobias and taste aversions.

Chapter 6: Memory

Short-Term and Long-Term Memory

• Short-term memory: Limited capacity and duration (about 7 items, lasts 15-30 seconds).

• Long-term memory: Virtually unlimited capacity, can last a lifetime.

Chapter 7: Cognition, Language, and Intelligence

Language and the Nature-Nurture Controversy

• Nature-nurture controversy: Debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to development.

• Language acquisition: Involves both innate biological mechanisms and environmental influences.

Chapter 8: Development

Developmental Psychology Issues

• Attachment: Emotional bond between child and caregiver.

• Parenting styles: Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved.

• Kubler-Ross: Stages of death and dying (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance).

Attachment Style	Description
Secure	Child feels safe and confident; caregiver is responsive.
Insecure-Avoidant	Child avoids caregiver; caregiver is unresponsive.
Insecure-Resistant	Child is anxious; caregiver is inconsistent.
Disorganized	Child shows confused behavior; caregiver is erratic.

Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

• Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

Chapter 10: Social Psychology

Attitudes

• Cognitive: Beliefs or thoughts about an object.

• Emotional: Feelings toward an object.

• Behavioral: Predispositions to act in certain ways toward an object.

Chapter 11: Personality Theory and Assessment

Levels of Awareness

• Conscious: Thoughts and feelings we are aware of.

• Preconscious: Information just below the surface of awareness.

• Unconscious: Thoughts and memories outside of conscious awareness.

Chapter 12: Health and Stress

General Adaptation Syndrome

• Describes the body's response to stress in three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Chapter 13: Psychological Disorders

Specific Phobia and Schizophrenia

• Specific phobia: Intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation.

• Schizophrenia: Severe disorder characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, and behavior.