Health, Stress, and Coping: Foundations of Health Psychology

Health Psychology and Psychoneuroimmunology

Introduction to Health Psychology

Health psychology explores how psychological, biological, and social factors influence health, illness, and healthcare. It emphasizes the mind-body connection and the impact of psychological processes on physical well-being.

• Psychoneuroimmunology: The interdisciplinary study of how the immune system and nervous system interact, especially in the context of stress and health.

• Early views considered disease as purely biological, but research now shows that stress and emotions significantly affect immunity and health outcomes.

• Positive emotions and adequate sleep are linked to better immune functioning.

Understanding Stress

Defining Stress

Stress is the psychological and physiological response to events that threaten or challenge an individual. The experience of stress is highly subjective and depends on personal perception and available coping resources.

• Events are stressful when perceived as threatening and when one feels unable to cope effectively.

• Stress can be acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term), with different health implications.

Lazarus & Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress

This model emphasizes the subjective nature of stress, focusing on how individuals appraise and respond to stressors.

• Primary Appraisal: Assessing whether an event is significant, threatening, or challenging.

• Secondary Appraisal: Evaluating one's resources and options for coping with the stressor.

• Stress arises when perceived demands exceed perceived resources.

Categorizing Stressors

Stressors can be classified based on their nature and impact:

• Cataclysmic Events: Sudden, large-scale events affecting many people (e.g., natural disasters, pandemics).

• Personal Stressors: Major life events (e.g., bereavement, job loss, marriage).

• Background Stressors: Daily hassles and minor irritations (e.g., traffic, long lines).

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

PTSD is a mental health condition triggered by exposure to traumatic events, leading to persistent psychological distress.

• Symptoms include flashbacks, nightmares, emotional numbing, sleep disturbances, and interpersonal difficulties.

• PTSD can be triggered by both cataclysmic and personal stressors, especially those involving helplessness.

Measuring Stress: Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Inventory

This scale assigns numerical values to major life events to estimate an individual's stress load and predict health risks.

• Higher scores are correlated with increased risk of physical and mental health problems.

Life Event	Mean Value
Death of spouse	100
Divorce	73
Marital separation	65
Detention in jail	63
Death of close family member	63

Stress, Technology, and Mental Health

Technology and Adolescent Stress

Research indicates a strong association between increased screen time and mental health issues among adolescents.

• More time on digital devices is linked to higher rates of anxiety, depression, and behavioral problems.

• Physical activity and sleep quality are negatively impacted by excessive screen time.

Reducing Screen Time

Interventions that limit screen time can improve stress, mood, and overall well-being.

• Reducing smartphone use to less than 2 hours per day improves sleep and reduces depressive symptoms.

Biological Responses to Stress

The Science of Stress: Hormonal Pathways

When stressed, the body activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, releasing stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol.

• Adrenaline increases heart rate and prepares the body for 'fight or flight.'

• Cortisol suppresses immune function and increases blood sugar availability.

Short-Term vs. Long-Term Stress Responses

• Short-Term (Acute) Stress: Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and energy; prepares body for immediate action.

• Long-Term (Chronic) Stress: Prolonged activation leads to cardiovascular damage, weakened immunity, and increased risk of illness.

Health Consequences of Stress

• Increased risk of heart disease, hypertension, and metabolic disorders.

• Digestive issues, weight gain, and changes in gut microbiota.

• Psychophysiological disorders: headaches, fatigue, skin problems, and more.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Stages of GAS

Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome describes the body's response to prolonged stress in three stages:

1. Alarm: Initial reaction, mobilization of resources (fight or flight).

2. Resistance: Coping with the stressor, sustained effort to adapt.

3. Exhaustion: Resources depleted, increased vulnerability to illness.

Personality, Stress, and Health

Personality Types and Coronary Heart Disease

Personality traits influence susceptibility to stress-related illnesses, particularly heart disease.

Personality Type	Characteristics	Risk of Heart Disease
Type A	Competitive, aggressive, impatient, achievement-oriented	High
Type B	Calm, patient, easy-going, creative	Low
Type D	Negative emotions, anxiety, insecurity, irritability	Very High

Hostility and Health

Hostility, a component of Type A personality, is particularly linked to increased cardiovascular risk due to heightened physiological arousal.

Coping with Stress

Coping Strategies

Coping refers to the cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage stress. Strategies are generally classified as:

• Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional responses to stress (e.g., relaxation, seeking support).

• Problem-Focused Coping: Addressing the source of stress directly (e.g., planning, problem-solving).

Building Resilience and Hardiness

Resilience is the ability to recover from adversity, while hardiness involves commitment, control, and viewing challenges as opportunities for growth.

• Support systems, growth mindset, and learning from setbacks foster resilience.

Sense of Control and Locus of Control

Perceived control over life events is a major predictor of stress response and health outcomes.

• Internal Locus of Control: Belief in one's ability to influence outcomes; associated with better coping and health.

• External Locus of Control: Belief that outcomes are determined by external forces; linked to helplessness and poorer health.

Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness occurs when individuals believe they have no control over negative events, leading to passivity and increased risk of depression.

• Classic studies by Seligman & Maier (1967) demonstrated this effect in animals and its relevance to human mental health.

Social Support and Health

The Role of Social Support

Social support provides emotional, informational, and practical resources that buffer against stress and promote health.

• Confiding in others, whether through talking or writing, has measurable benefits for immune function and psychological well-being.

Maladaptive Coping Strategies

Unhealthy coping mechanisms, such as avoidance, substance use, and excessive screen time, can worsen stress and health outcomes.

Doomscrolling

Doomscrolling is a maladaptive coping strategy characterized by compulsive consumption of negative news, which increases anxiety and rumination.

Spirituality and Health

Research suggests that practices such as prayer may have health benefits, potentially through psychological and physiological pathways.

Summary Table: Effects of Stress on Health

Consequence	Description
Direct Physiological	Elevated blood pressure, decreased immune function, hormonal changes
Harmful Behaviors	Increased smoking, alcohol/drug use, poor nutrition, decreased sleep
Indirect Health Behaviors	Noncompliance with medical advice, delayed care-seeking

Additional info: These notes integrate foundational concepts from health psychology, stress research, and coping theory, providing a comprehensive overview suitable for exam preparation in a college-level psychology course.