Health, Stress, and Coping: Study Notes for Psychology Students

Health Psychology

Psychoneuroimmunology

Psychoneuroimmunology is the interdisciplinary study of the interactions between psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system. It explores how stress and emotions can influence physical health.

• Immune system and nervous system are closely linked.

• Stress can weaken immunity, increasing susceptibility to illness.

• Positive emotions can boost health and immune function.

• Sleep is essential for maintaining immune health.

Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, increased stress led to higher rates of anxiety, depression, and PTSD, highlighting the link between mental and physical health.

Stress: Definition and Appraisal

Understanding Stress

Stress is a psychological and physiological response to events perceived as threatening or challenging. The experience of stress is highly personal and depends on individual perception.

• Stress occurs when a person perceives an event as threatening and lacks resources to cope.

• Appraisal is key: what is stressful for one person may not be for another.

Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Stress Model

This model emphasizes the subjective nature of stress, focusing on how individuals evaluate and respond to stressors.

1. Primary appraisal: Assessing whether an event is significant or threatening.

2. Secondary appraisal: Evaluating one's ability to cope with the event.

Example: A surprise test may be stressful for a student who values grades and feels unprepared, but not for someone confident in their abilities.

Categorizing Stressors

Types of Stressors

Stressors can be classified based on their nature and impact.

• Cataclysmic events: Sudden, powerful events affecting many people (e.g., natural disasters, pandemics).

• Personal stressors: Major life events with immediate, but often temporary, effects (e.g., death, job loss, marriage).

• Background stressors: Daily hassles and minor irritations that can accumulate and cause long-term stress (e.g., traffic, waiting in lines).

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

PTSD is a psychological disorder resulting from exposure to major stressors or catastrophes.

• Symptoms include flashbacks, emotional numbing, sleep difficulties, interpersonal issues, substance use, and suicidal thoughts.

• Episodes can be triggered by seemingly innocuous stimuli.

Personal Stressors and the Social Readjustment Scale

Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Inventory

This scale assigns numerical values to major life events to assess their impact on health.

• Higher scores correlate with increased risk of physical and mental health issues.

Categories of Personal Stressors

• Life changes: Events requiring adjustment (e.g., moving, marriage).

• Internal conflicts: Facing incompatible motivations or choices.

• Frustration: When goals are blocked.

• Pressure: Mismatch between demands and resources.

Stress and Technology

Screen Time and Mental Health

Research indicates a link between technology use and mental health issues, especially in adolescents.

• More screen time is associated with higher rates of anxiety, depression, behavioral problems, and ADHD.

• Reducing screen time improves stress, depressive symptoms, sleep quality, and well-being.

• Physical inactivity and poor sleep are contributing factors.

Physiological Responses to Stress

Stress Hormones

When stressed, the body releases hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol from the adrenal glands.

• Short-term stress prepares the body for "fight or flight" (increased heart rate, blood pressure, sweating, rapid breathing).

• Long-term (chronic) stress can damage the heart, weaken the immune system, and increase illness frequency.

Immune System and Stress

• Chronic stress suppresses lymphocyte activity, reducing the body's ability to fight infection and cancer.

Physical Effects of Stress

• High blood pressure, arterial buildup, heart attack risk.

• Digestive issues, changes in gut bacteria, heartburn.

• Increased hunger and potential weight gain due to cortisol.

• Acne, hair loss, headaches, fatigue.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Stages of GAS

Hans Selye's model describes the body's response to stress in three stages:

1. Alarm: Initial reaction to stressor.

2. Resistance: Adaptation and coping with the stressor.

3. Exhaustion: Depletion of resources, leading to health problems.

Challenges: Biological responses may vary depending on the stressor and individual appraisal.

Personality and Stress: Types A, B, and D

ABD's of Coronary Heart Disease

Personality types influence susceptibility to heart disease.

Type	Characteristics	Health Impact
Type A	Hostility, competitiveness, time urgency, achievement orientation	Higher risk of heart disease, more fatal heart attacks
Type B	Cooperative, patient, non-competitive, nonaggressive	Lower risk of heart disease
Type D	Distressed, insecurity, anxiety, negative outlook	Associated with poorer health outcomes

Hostility is particularly linked to increased physiological arousal and heart disease risk.

Transactional Model of Hostility

• Hostile behaviors (confrontational, defensive) reinforce negative responses in others, creating a cycle.

Psychological Aspects of Cancer

Emotional responses can affect coping and quality of life in cancer patients, though not necessarily survival rates.

• "Fighting spirit" improves coping and reduces emotional distress.

• Therapies targeting emotional state may extend life.

Coping and Stress Management

Uplifts

Small positive experiences, known as uplifts, can protect mental health and improve mood.

• Experiencing more uplifts correlates with better well-being.

Exercise

• Increases dopamine, epinephrine, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).

• Improves cognitive processing speed and preserves cognitive function.

• Reduces risk of Alzheimer's and dementia.

Meditation

• Reduces stress hormones and inflammation.

• Improves sleep quality, memory, and attention span.

Coping Strategies

Type	Description	Examples
Emotion-Focused Coping	Managing emotional response to stress	Deep breathing, listening to music, talking to a friend
Problem-Focused Coping	Addressing the source of stress	Study group, asking for help, reviewing mistakes

Example: After a low grade, emotion-focused coping might involve seeking comfort, while problem-focused coping involves improving study habits.

Resilience and Hardiness

Building Resilience

Resilience is the ability to recover from stress and adversity.

• Higher resilience leads to optimism and confidence in coping.

• Support systems, growth mindset, and learning from challenges foster resilience.

Hardiness

Hardiness is a personality trait linked to lower rates of stress-related illness.

• Commitment: Engagement and curiosity about life.

• Control: Belief in one's ability to influence events.

• Challenge: Viewing change as opportunity for growth.

Sense of Control and Locus of Control

Perceived Control

Belief in one's ability to influence outcomes predicts better physical and mental health.

• Greater psychological well-being and less stress.

Locus of Control

Type	Description	Examples
Internal	Belief that one's actions influence outcomes	"I can improve by working harder."
External	Belief that outcomes are controlled by external factors	"It's not my fault; circumstances are to blame."

Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness occurs when individuals believe they cannot change a negative situation, leading to passivity and lack of initiative.

• Originated from Seligman & Maier's experiments with dogs.

• Linked to depression and maladaptive responses.

• Used in "enhanced interrogation techniques" to induce compliance.

Compensatory Control

When personal control is compromised, people use psychological strategies to maintain a sense of order and reduce anxiety.

Social Support

Social support involves being part of a network that provides information, advice, and tangible assistance.

• Confiding in others reduces physiological stress and improves immune function.

• Writing about trauma (Pennebaker studies) leads to better health outcomes.

Maladaptive Coping Strategies

• Avoidance

• Substance use

• Excessive screen time

• Social withdrawal

Doomscrolling

Doomscrolling is a maladaptive coping strategy involving compulsive consumption of negative online content.

• Driven by evolutionary bias toward threat, FoMO, and variable-reward feedback loops.

• Short-term distraction, but increases rumination and distress in the long term.

The Power of Prayer

Research suggests prayer may have health benefits, even for those unaware they are being prayed for.

• Studies show improved outcomes in groups receiving prayer or non-medical interventions.

Key Terms and Concepts

• Psychoneuroimmunology: Study of interactions between mind, nervous system, and immune system.

• Stress: Response to perceived threats or challenges.

• Appraisal: Evaluation of stressor and coping resources.

• Resilience: Ability to recover from adversity.

• Hardiness: Personality trait promoting stress resistance.

• Locus of Control: Belief about control over life events.

• Learned Helplessness: Passive response to uncontrollable stress.

• Social Support: Network providing emotional and practical assistance.

• Maladaptive Coping: Ineffective strategies for managing stress.

Relevant Equations

While psychological stress is not typically described by equations, the Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Inventory uses a scoring system:

• Life Change Score = Sum of numerical values assigned to each life event experienced in the past 12 months.

Correlation between stress score and health outcomes:

$\text{Health Risk} \propto \text{Life Change Score}$

Stress hormone release:

$\text{Stress} \rightarrow \text{Adrenaline} + \text{Cortisol}$

Suppression of immune function:

$\text{Chronic Stress} \rightarrow \text{\downarrow Lymphocyte Activity}$

Additional info: Academic context was added to clarify concepts, expand brief points, and provide examples and tables for comparison and classification.