Introduction to Psychology: Foundations, Methods, and Levels of Analysis

What is Psychology?

Definition and Scope

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behaviour (Lilienfeld et al., 2017). It seeks to understand how individuals think, feel, and act, using empirical methods to investigate mental processes and observable actions.

• Mind: Refers to mental processes such as thoughts, feelings, and motives.

• Brain: The biological substrate that enables mental processes and behaviour.

• Behaviour: Observable actions of humans and animals.

Example: Studying how memory works, why people help others, or how stress affects health.

Learning Objectives

• Explain what psychologists do

• Examine behaviour from multiple levels of analysis

• Identify the unifying feature of psychology

• Name three key characteristics of science

What Do Psychologists Do?

Roles and Specializations

Psychologists work in a variety of fields, applying scientific methods to understand and address mental processes and behaviour. Their roles include research, clinical practice, teaching, and consulting in diverse settings.

• Clinical Psychologists: Assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioural disorders.

• Counseling Psychologists: Help people cope with life challenges and improve well-being.

• School Psychologists: Work within educational settings to support student learning and mental health.

• Industrial & Organizational Psychologists: Apply psychological principles to workplace issues.

• Experimental Psychologists: Conduct research to understand fundamental psychological processes.

• Developmental and Social Psychologists: Study changes across the lifespan and social influences on behaviour.

Distribution of Psychology Doctorates

The field of psychology is divided into health service provider subfields and research subfields. The following table summarizes the distribution of doctorates awarded in these areas (IPEDS Completions Survey, 2013):

Subfield	Percentage of Doctorates Awarded
Clinical	30%
Counseling	8%
School	5%
Other Clinical, Counseling & Applied	1%
Psychology, General	8%
Industrial & Organizational	3%
Experimental	2%
Social	1%
Developmental & Child	1%

Clinical Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist

Although both professionals work with mental health, their training and roles differ significantly:

Clinical Psychologist	Psychiatrist
Graduate School (PhD or PsyD)	Medical School (MD)
Cannot prescribe medication	Can prescribe medication
Focus on cognition & behaviour	Focus on biological & neurochemical factors

Psychology: A Diverse Science

Key Questions in Psychology

Psychology addresses a wide range of questions about human experience and behaviour, such as:

• What makes people happy?

• How does brain activity correspond to behaviour?

• Why do people believe in supernatural agents?

• How do children learn languages?

• When do people help each other?

• How do people track objects in visual space?

• Why can’t I remember where I put my keys?

• How do thinking and behaviour differ between cultures?

• What is the best way to stop smoking?

Additional info: These questions illustrate the breadth of topics in psychology, from biological mechanisms to social and cultural influences.

Behaviour is Multiply Determined

Levels of Analysis

Psychological phenomena are complex and typically require explanation from multiple perspectives, known as levels of analysis:

• Biological: Genetics, brain systems, neurochemistry

• Psychological: Personality, perception, cognition, emotions, gender

• Social: Interpersonal influences, social cognition

• Societal/Cultural: Impact of society and culture on thoughts, actions, and behaviours

Example: Understanding why someone is homeless may involve biological factors (e.g., genetic predispositions), psychological factors (e.g., mental health), social factors (e.g., support networks), and societal/cultural factors (e.g., economic policies).

The Unifying Feature of Psychology

Scientific Method

The only unifying characteristic of modern psychology is the quest to understand behaviour using the methods of science (Stanovich, 2017). This means that psychologists rely on empirical evidence, systematic observation, and critical thinking to draw conclusions.

• Data-driven (empirically based): Conclusions are based on data, not intuition or authority.

• Scientific method: Involves forming hypotheses, collecting data, and testing predictions.

• Focus on behaviour: All subfields are united by an interest in understanding behaviour.

Ways of Knowing

Common Approaches

• Folk Wisdom/Common Sense: Everyday beliefs or sayings (e.g., "opposites attract").

• Authority: Accepting information from experts or respected sources.

• Intuition: Knowledge based on instinctive feelings rather than conscious reasoning.

Additional info: While these approaches can be useful, psychology emphasizes scientific methods to avoid biases and errors in understanding behaviour.