Introduction to Psychology: Foundations, Perspectives, and Scientific Thinking

Introduction to Psychology

Definition and Scope

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Psychologists describe, predict, and explain human behaviour and mental processes, seeking to understand why people think, feel, and act as they do.

• Behaviour: Observable actions of humans and animals.

• Mental processes: Internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and motives.

Key Question: What’s something about human behaviour or the mind that you’ve always been curious about? (e.g., Why do people think the way they do? Are there more factors to Alzheimer’s than genetics? Why do we dream?)

Controversial Topics in Psychology

• Social psychology: conformity, obedience

• Psychological disorders (crime, solitary confinement, incarceration)

Psychology: Past and Present

Historical Development

• Originally, psychology was considered a part of philosophy; ancient Greeks contemplated the mind.

• Formal beginnings in the late 19th century.

• Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology lab in 1879; studied the building blocks of the mind (structuralism) using introspection.

Major Schools of Thought

Structuralism

• Founded by Wilhelm Wundt and E.B. Titchener.

• Focused on the structure and characteristics of the mind through introspection.

• Emphasized understanding consciousness by analyzing its basic elements.

Functionalism

• Founded by William James (1st American psychologist).

• Focused on the purpose of cognitive processes and behaviour.

• Influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection.

Behaviourism

• Founded by John B. Watson and later advanced by B.F. Skinner.

• Emphasized observable behaviour over internal mental states.

• Studied how behaviour is learned and modified by the environment (conditioning).

• B.F. Skinner: Focused on consequences of behaviour (reinforcement and punishment); developed operant conditioning.

Cognitivism

• Key figures: Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky.

• Focused on mental processes underlying thinking, memory, and language.

• Emphasized interpretation of events, not just observable behaviour.

Psychodynamic Perspective

• Founded by Sigmund Freud.

• Emphasized unconscious motives and conflicts as drivers of behaviour.

• Studied phenomena such as hysteria and neurosis.

Summary Table: Major Perspectives in Psychology

Perspective	Key Focus	Key Figures
Structuralism	Structure of the mind	Wundt, Titchener
Functionalism	Purpose of behaviour	James
Behaviourism	Observable behaviour	Watson, Skinner
Cognitivism	Mental processes	Piaget, Chomsky
Psychodynamic	Unconscious motives	Freud

Women in Psychology

• Sexual prejudice historically hindered women’s participation in psychology.

• Women represent 28% of faculty at the highest rank (though 44% of faculty overall).

• Male psychologists earn more on average than female counterparts in Canada.

• Margaret Floy Washburn: First woman to receive a PhD in psychology (1894).

Common Sense vs. Scientific Thinking

Limitations of Common Sense

• Common sense can be misleading (e.g., “seeing is believing”).

• People often make snap judgments that are not always accurate.

• Example: The earth seems to be standing still, but it is rotating at about 30 km/sec.

Sometimes common sense is correct, but scientific thinking is required to avoid errors and biases.

Scientific Method

• Identify questions of interest.

• Formulate explanations (hypotheses).

• Carry out research to support or refute explanations.

Scientific Theory

• An explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world.

• Must be testable and falsifiable.

Bias and Critical Thinking in Psychology

Bias Awareness

• Best scientists are aware of their biases.

Confirmation Bias

• Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and ignore or distort contrary evidence.

• Example: Police evidence matching.

Belief Perseverance

• Tendency to stick to initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them.

• "Don’t confuse me with facts" bias.

Consequences of Biases

• Shape our behaviour and self-diagnosis.

• Reinforce stereotypes and relationship conflicts.

• Influence product reviews.

Pseudoscience and Critical Thinking

• Pseudoscience: Claims that seem scientific but are not supported by evidence.

• Warning signs: Use of psychobabble, lack of self-correction, reliance on anecdotal evidence, extraordinary claims without extraordinary evidence.

Patternicity

• Tendency to detect meaningful patterns in random stimuli.

Terror Management Theory

• We experience anxiety because we are aware that death is inevitable but unpredictable.

• We manage this anxiety by seeking worldviews that provide meaning, purpose, and continuity.

• The theory is tested by manipulating mortality salience (the extent to which death is on our minds).

Antidote to Pseudoscience

• Think scientifically and critically.

• Separate science from pseudoscience.

• Avoid common logical fallacies (e.g., emotional reasoning, bandwagon fallacy).

Critical Thinking

• Set of skills to evaluate claims open-mindedly and carefully.

• Key to the scientific method: thinking critically, evaluating evidence, and overcoming biases.

Types of Psychological Research

Experimental Psychology

• Research-focused; uses experiments to test hypotheses and establish cause-effect relationships.

Applied Psychology

• Utilizes research to solve real-world problems.

• Examples: Clinical psychology, child development, I-O psychology, sports psychology, social/personality psychology, forensic psychology.

Basic vs. Applied Research

• Basic research: Examines how the mind works.

• Applied research: Utilizes research in everyday life to solve real-world problems.