Introduction to Psychology: Foundations, Perspectives, and Scientific Thinking

Introduction to Psychology

Definition and Scope

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Psychologists describe, predict, and explain human behaviour and mental processes, seeking to answer questions about why people think and act the way they do.

• Key Question: What’s something about human behaviour or the mind that you’ve always been curious about?

• Examples: Why do people dream? Are there more factors to Alzheimer’s than genetics?

Controversial Topics in Psychology

• Social psychology: conformity, obedience

• Psychological disorders: crime, solitary confinement, incarceration

History and Major Perspectives in Psychology

Psychology: Past and Present

Psychology originated as a part of philosophy and gradually developed into a scientific discipline.

• Originally considered a part of philosophy; ancient Greeks contemplated the mind.

• Formal beginnings in the late 19th century.

• Wilhelm Wundt: First psychology lab in 1879; studied building blocks of the mind using introspection.

Structuralism

Structuralism was one of the earliest schools of thought in psychology, focusing on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components.

• Key figures: Wilhelm Wundt, E.B. Titchener

• Emphasized introspection and laboratory studies

• Aimed to understand the structure and characteristics of the mind

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology

Several major schools of thought have shaped modern psychology, each offering different explanations for behaviour and mental processes.

• Structuralism

• Functionalism

• Behaviorism

• Cognitivism

• Psychodynamic

Functionalism

• Founded by William James (first American psychologist)

• Focused on the purpose of cognitive processes and behaviour

• Influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection

Psychodynamic Perspective

• Founded by Sigmund Freud

• Emphasized unconscious motives and conflicts

• Studied hysteria and neurosis

Behaviorism

• Key figures: B.F. Skinner

• Focused on observable behaviour and its consequences

• Studied principles of modifying behaviour through reinforcement and punishment (operant conditioning)

• Used today in behavioural therapy (CBT)

Cognitivism

• Key figures: Jean Piaget

• Focused on mental processes underlying thinking

• Emphasized interpretation over reward/punishment

Women in Psychology

• Sexual prejudice hindered women’s participation

• Still only represent 28% of faculty at highest rank

• Male psychologists earn more than female counterparts

• Margaret Floy Washburn: First woman to receive PhD in Psychology (1894)

Thinking Critically: Common Sense and Scientific Method

Why Can’t We Always Trust Common Sense?

• Naive realism: "Seeing is believing"

• The earth seems flat, but is actually round

• Snap judgments based on facial traits are only 65% accurate in determining sexual orientation

Scientific Method

The scientific method is a way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing theories, and making predictions.

• Identify questions of interest

• Formulate explanations

• Carry out research to support/refute

Scientific Theory

• Explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world

• Must be testable and falsifiable

Biases and Fallacies in Thinking

Confirmation Bias

• Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypothesis

• Neglecting or ignoring contrary evidence

• Example: Police evidence matching

Belief Perseverance

• Tendency to stick to initial beliefs even when evidence is contradictory

• "Don’t confuse me with facts" bias

Examples of Biases in Real Life

• Shaping our behaviour

• Stereotyping

• Medical self-diagnosis

• Relationship conflicts

• Product reviews

Warning Signs of Pseudoscience

• Use of psychobabble (e.g., energy therapies)

• Lack of self-correction

• Overreliance on anecdotal evidence

• Extraordinary claims without extraordinary evidence

Patternicity

• Tendency to detect meaningful patterns in random stimuli

Terror Management Theory

• We experience anxiety because we are aware that death is inevitable but unpredictable

• We manage this anxiety by seeking worldviews that provide meaning, purpose, and continuity

• The theory is tested by manipulating mortality salience

Antidote for Pseudoscience

• Think scientifically

• Separate science from pseudoscience

• Avoid common logical fallacies

Common Logical Fallacies

• Emotion reasoning fallacy: Using emotions rather than evidence

• Bandwagon fallacy: Believing something is true because many people believe it

• Not me fallacy: Believing others have biases, not oneself

Dangers of Pseudoscience

• Opportunity cost: Investing time, energy, effort into questionable treatment

• Direct harm: Sometimes do direct harm to those who receive them

• Blocks critical thinking

Critical Thinking

• Set of skills to evaluate claims open-mindedly and carefully

• Key to scientific method

• Thinking critically, thinking scientifically

• Not intuitive, requires overcoming biases

Types of Psychological Research

Experimental Psychology

• Research focused

Applied Psychology

• Utilizes research in everyday life to solve real-world problems

Major Areas of Psychology

• Child development psychology

• Industrial/Organizational (I/O) psychology

• Sports psychology

• Social/personality psychology

• Forensic psychology

• Other specialized areas

How Psychology Affects Our Lives

• Basic research: Examines how the mind works

• Applied research: Utilizes research to solve real-world problems

Table: Major Schools of Thought in Psychology

School	Key Figures	Main Focus	Methods
Structuralism	Wilhelm Wundt, E.B. Titchener	Structure of the mind	Introspection, lab studies
Functionalism	William James	Purpose of behaviour and mental processes	Observation, influenced by evolution
Behaviorism	B.F. Skinner	Observable behaviour	Reinforcement, punishment, experiments
Cognitivism	Jean Piaget	Mental processes	Interpretation, cognitive tasks
Psychodynamic	Sigmund Freud	Unconscious motives	Case studies, clinical observation

Key Equations and Concepts

• Scientific Theory: $\text{Theory} = \text{Explanation for a large number of findings}$

• Operant Conditioning (Behaviorism): $\text{Behaviour} \xrightarrow{\text{Reinforcement/Punishment}} \text{Change in Behaviour}$

Additional info: Some explanations and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness, based on standard introductory psychology curriculum.