Introduction to Psychology Midterm Review Guidance

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Q1. What is the definition of psychology?

Background

Topic: Foundations of Psychology

This question tests your understanding of the basic definition of psychology and its scope as a scientific discipline.

Key Terms:

Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Behavior: Observable actions of humans and animals.
Mental Processes: Internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and perceptions.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Consider what psychology aims to study: both observable behaviors and internal mental processes.
Think about how psychology uses scientific methods to investigate these phenomena.
Try to phrase the definition in a way that includes both behavior and mental processes.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This includes both observable actions and internal experiences such as thoughts, emotions, and perceptions.

Q2. What makes psychology a science?

Background

Topic: Scientific Foundations

This question is about the characteristics that qualify psychology as a science, such as its use of systematic methods and empirical evidence.

Key Terms:

Empirical Evidence: Information acquired by observation or experimentation.
Scientific Method: A systematic approach to research involving hypothesis, observation, and analysis.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Think about how psychologists conduct research: they use experiments, observations, and data analysis.
Consider the importance of objectivity and replicability in scientific studies.
Reflect on how psychology relies on the scientific method to test hypotheses and theories.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Psychology is considered a science because it uses the scientific method to systematically study behavior and mental processes, relying on empirical evidence and objective analysis.

Q3. Who was Freud? What was unique about his psychoanalytic theory?

Background

Topic: Historical Figures in Psychology

This question focuses on Sigmund Freud and his contributions, especially the unique aspects of psychoanalytic theory.

Key Terms:

Sigmund Freud: Austrian neurologist, founder of psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalytic Theory: Emphasizes unconscious motives, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts.
Unconscious Mind: Part of the mind that influences behavior without conscious awareness.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall Freud's role in psychology and his focus on the unconscious mind.
Think about how psychoanalytic theory differs from other approaches (e.g., focus on inner conflicts, childhood experiences).
Identify what made Freud's theory unique compared to other early psychological theories.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Freud was an Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis. His theory was unique because it emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts on behavior.

Q4. Who was Watson?

Background

Topic: Historical Figures in Psychology

This question is about John B. Watson and his contributions to psychology, especially behaviorism.

Key Terms:

John B. Watson: American psychologist, founder of behaviorism.
Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behavior rather than internal mental states.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall Watson's main contribution to psychology.
Think about the main principles of behaviorism and how Watson applied them.
Consider how Watson's approach differed from psychoanalytic theory.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

John B. Watson was an American psychologist who founded behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting the focus on internal mental processes.

Q5. What are the seven modern perspectives on psychology? Can you give the general idea behind each?

Background

Topic: Modern Perspectives in Psychology

This question tests your knowledge of the main contemporary approaches to psychology and their basic principles.

Key Terms:

Perspective: A particular approach or viewpoint in psychology.
Examples: Biological, Behavioral, Cognitive, Humanistic, Psychodynamic, Sociocultural, Evolutionary.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the seven perspectives: Biological, Behavioral, Cognitive, Humanistic, Psychodynamic, Sociocultural, Evolutionary.
For each, briefly describe its main focus (e.g., Biological: brain and genetics; Behavioral: observable actions).
Think about how each perspective explains behavior and mental processes differently.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The seven modern perspectives are: Biological (focuses on genetics and brain), Behavioral (observable actions), Cognitive (thought processes), Humanistic (personal growth), Psychodynamic (unconscious motives), Sociocultural (social and cultural influences), and Evolutionary (adaptation and survival).

Q6. What is the scientific method?

Background

Topic: Research Methods

This question is about the systematic process used in scientific research, including psychology.

Key Terms:

Scientific Method: Steps for conducting research: observation, hypothesis, experiment, analysis, conclusion.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the main steps: observation, hypothesis, experiment, analysis, conclusion.
Think about how each step contributes to scientific inquiry.
Try to summarize the process in your own words.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The scientific method is a systematic process involving observation, forming a hypothesis, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.

Q7. What is an independent variable? A dependent variable?

Background

Topic: Experimental Design

This question tests your understanding of variables in psychological experiments.

Key Terms:

Independent Variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable: The variable measured to see the effect of the independent variable.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify which variable is changed or controlled by the experimenter.
Determine which variable is observed or measured as the outcome.
Think of an example experiment and label the variables.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable is measured to assess the effect of the manipulation.

Q8. What do we mean when two variables correlate? Positively? Or negatively?

Background

Topic: Correlation in Research

This question is about understanding relationships between variables in psychological studies.

Key Terms:

Correlation: A statistical relationship between two variables.
Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.
Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall what it means for two variables to be correlated (they change together).
Think about the difference between positive and negative correlation.
Try to give an example of each type.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

When two variables correlate, they change together. A positive correlation means both increase or decrease together; a negative correlation means one increases as the other decreases.

Q9. What are the parts of a neuron?

Background

Topic: Biological Perspective

This question tests your knowledge of neuron structure and function.

Key Terms:

Neuron: A nerve cell that transmits information.
Parts: Dendrites, cell body (soma), axon, axon terminals, myelin sheath.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the main structural parts of a neuron.
Describe the function of each part (e.g., dendrites receive signals).
Think about how information flows through the neuron.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The main parts of a neuron are dendrites (receive signals), cell body (processes information), axon (transmits signals), axon terminals (send signals to other cells), and myelin sheath (insulates axon).

Q10. How is information transmitted from one neuron to the next?

Background

Topic: Neural Communication

This question is about the process of synaptic transmission between neurons.

Key Terms:

Synapse: The gap between neurons.
Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger released by neurons.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the role of the axon terminal in releasing neurotransmitters.
Think about how neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap.
Consider how the receiving neuron responds to the neurotransmitter.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Information is transmitted from one neuron to the next by neurotransmitters released from the axon terminal, crossing the synapse, and binding to receptors on the receiving neuron.

Q11. What does action potential mean?

Background

Topic: Neural Communication

This question tests your understanding of the electrical process that enables neurons to transmit signals.

Key Terms:

Action Potential: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon.
Threshold: The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall that an action potential is an electrical impulse.
Think about how it is generated when the neuron reaches threshold.
Consider how the action potential moves along the axon.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

An action potential is a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon, allowing the neuron to transmit information.

Q12. Central and peripheral nervous system? Which part is responsible for fight or flight?

Background

Topic: Nervous System Structure

This question is about the organization of the nervous system and the role of the sympathetic division.

Key Terms:

Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS.
Sympathetic Nervous System: Part of PNS responsible for fight or flight.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify the main components of CNS and PNS.
Recall which division of the PNS is involved in fight or flight responses.
Think about the functions of the sympathetic nervous system.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord; the peripheral nervous system includes all other nerves. The sympathetic nervous system, part of the PNS, is responsible for fight or flight responses.

Q13. Can you identify the four lobes of the brain? What types of functions are associated with each?

Background

Topic: Brain Structure and Function

This question tests your knowledge of the major lobes of the brain and their functions.

Key Terms:

Frontal Lobe: Planning, reasoning, movement.
Parietal Lobe: Sensory information, spatial processing.
Temporal Lobe: Hearing, memory.
Occipital Lobe: Vision.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital.
Associate each lobe with its primary function.
Think about examples of tasks or abilities linked to each lobe.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The four lobes are: frontal (planning, movement), parietal (sensory processing), temporal (hearing, memory), and occipital (vision).

Q14. What are the three different models of memory?

Background

Topic: Memory Models

This question is about the main theoretical models of memory in psychology.

Key Terms:

Information-Processing Model: Memory as a process of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Levels-of-Processing Model: Depth of processing affects memory.
Parallel Distributed Processing Model: Memory is distributed across a network.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the three main models: information-processing, levels-of-processing, parallel distributed processing.
Describe the basic idea behind each model.
Think about how each model explains memory differently.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The three models are: information-processing (encoding, storage, retrieval), levels-of-processing (depth of processing), and parallel distributed processing (network-based memory).

Q15. What are the three stages of memory?

Background

Topic: Memory Stages

This question is about the sequence of memory processing.

Key Terms:

Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information.
Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage for information being used.
Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage of information.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the three stages: sensory, short-term, long-term.
Describe the function and duration of each stage.
Think about how information moves from one stage to the next.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The three stages are sensory memory (brief), short-term memory (temporary), and long-term memory (permanent).

Q16. Implicit vs. explicit memory: Give an example of each.

Background

Topic: Types of Memory

This question is about the distinction between implicit and explicit memory and examples of each.

Key Terms:

Implicit Memory: Unconscious, automatic memory (e.g., skills).
Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional recollection (e.g., facts).

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the definitions of implicit and explicit memory.
Think of an example of a skill or habit for implicit memory.
Think of an example of a fact or event for explicit memory.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Implicit memory example: riding a bike. Explicit memory example: recalling your birthday.

Q17. Methods of problem solving: Different strategies

Background

Topic: Cognitive Perspective

This question is about various strategies used in problem solving.

Key Terms:

Algorithm: Step-by-step procedure.
Heuristic: Mental shortcut.
Trial and Error: Trying different solutions.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List common problem-solving strategies: algorithm, heuristic, trial and error.
Describe how each strategy works.
Think about the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Common strategies include algorithms (systematic steps), heuristics (shortcuts), and trial and error (testing solutions).

Q18. What is classical conditioning?

Background

Topic: Learning

This question is about the basic principles of classical conditioning.

Key Terms:

Classical Conditioning: Learning by association.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, now triggers response.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the process of pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
Think about how the neutral stimulus becomes conditioned.
Describe the resulting conditioned response.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Classical conditioning is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggering a conditioned response.

Q19. What is a neutral stimulus? An unconditioned stimulus? Unconditioned response vs. a conditioned response?

Background

Topic: Classical Conditioning

This question is about the terminology and roles in classical conditioning.

Key Terms:

Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not trigger a response initially.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS.
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned reaction to CS.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each term: NS, UCS, UCR, CR.
Think about how the NS becomes a CS through conditioning.
Describe the difference between UCR and CR.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Neutral stimulus: no response initially; unconditioned stimulus: triggers natural response; unconditioned response: natural reaction; conditioned response: learned reaction to conditioned stimulus.

Q20. Stimulus generalization vs stimulus discrimination: What is the difference? What is an example of each?

Background

Topic: Classical Conditioning

This question is about the concepts of generalization and discrimination in learning.

Key Terms:

Stimulus Generalization: Responding to similar stimuli.
Stimulus Discrimination: Responding only to specific stimuli.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define stimulus generalization and discrimination.
Think of an example where an organism responds to similar stimuli (generalization).
Think of an example where an organism responds only to a specific stimulus (discrimination).

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Stimulus generalization: responding to similar stimuli (e.g., dog salivates to all bells); stimulus discrimination: responding only to a specific stimulus (e.g., dog salivates only to one bell).

Q21. What is extinction in classical conditioning? How does it differ or relate to spontaneous recovery?

Background

Topic: Classical Conditioning

This question is about the processes of extinction and spontaneous recovery in learning.

Key Terms:

Extinction: Disappearance of conditioned response.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of conditioned response after extinction.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define extinction and spontaneous recovery.
Think about how extinction occurs (CS presented without UCS).
Consider how spontaneous recovery can happen after a pause.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Extinction is the disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery is the sudden reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction and a rest period.

Q22. Taste aversion and biological preparedness? How is biological preparedness related to classical conditioning? What is the survival benefit to quickly acquiring a taste aversion to things after trying it only once?

Background

Topic: Learning and Evolution

This question is about the concept of biological preparedness and its role in classical conditioning, especially taste aversion.

Key Terms:

Taste Aversion: Avoidance of food after illness.
Biological Preparedness: Innate tendency to learn certain associations.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define taste aversion and biological preparedness.
Explain how biological preparedness makes some associations easier to learn.
Consider the survival benefit of quickly learning taste aversion.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Biological preparedness means organisms are predisposed to learn certain associations, like taste aversion, quickly. This helps survival by avoiding harmful substances after just one exposure.

Q23. Operant conditioning: Who came first, Thorndike or Skinner?

Background

Topic: Learning

This question is about the history of operant conditioning and its key figures.

Key Terms:

Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences.
Edward Thorndike: Early researcher, Law of Effect.
B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning further.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the timeline of Thorndike and Skinner's work.
Think about Thorndike's Law of Effect and its influence on Skinner.
Identify who laid the groundwork for operant conditioning.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Thorndike came first, developing the Law of Effect, which influenced Skinner's work on operant conditioning.

Q24. What is a reinforcer? What is positive vs. negative reinforcement? What does the “negative” in negative reinforcement not mean bad?

Background

Topic: Operant Conditioning

This question is about reinforcement and its types in operant conditioning.

Key Terms:

Reinforcer: Any event that strengthens behavior.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define reinforcer and its role in behavior.
Explain positive reinforcement (adding pleasant stimulus).
Explain negative reinforcement (removing unpleasant stimulus).
Clarify that "negative" does not mean punishment or something bad.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

A reinforcer strengthens behavior. Positive reinforcement adds something pleasant; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant. "Negative" refers to removal, not something bad.

Q25. What does shaping behavior mean?

Background

Topic: Operant Conditioning

This question is about the process of shaping in learning.

Key Terms:

Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired goal.
Successive Approximations: Reinforcing steps closer to the target behavior.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define shaping and its purpose.
Explain how successive approximations are used.
Think of an example where shaping is applied.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Shaping is the process of reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior, using successive approximations.

Q26. Observational learning: How does it differ from operant conditioning? What are the four elements of observational learning?

Background

Topic: Learning

This question is about learning by observing others and its key elements.

Key Terms:

Observational Learning: Learning by watching others.
Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences.
Elements: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Compare observational learning and operant conditioning.
List the four elements: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.
Describe each element briefly.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Observational learning differs from operant conditioning by relying on watching others. The four elements are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Q27. What is latent learning? Insight learning? Can only humans learn through insight?

Background

Topic: Learning

This question is about types of learning that are not directly reinforced.

Key Terms:

Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately demonstrated.
Insight Learning: Sudden realization of a solution.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define latent learning and insight learning.
Think about examples of each.
Consider whether animals can learn through insight.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Latent learning is learning that is not shown until needed. Insight learning is a sudden solution. Animals, not just humans, can learn through insight.

Q28. Monozygotic and dizygotic twins: What is the difference?

Background

Topic: Human Development

This question is about the types of twins and their genetic similarities.

Key Terms:

Monozygotic Twins: Identical, from one egg.
Dizygotic Twins: Fraternal, from two eggs.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
Compare their genetic similarities.
Think about how each type is formed.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Monozygotic twins are identical, from one egg; dizygotic twins are fraternal, from two eggs.

Q29. What is a teratogen? Is it an example of nature or nurture? During which stage can teratogens impact development: germinal stage, embryo or fetal?

Background

Topic: Human Development

This question is about environmental influences on prenatal development.

Key Terms:

Teratogen: Environmental agent causing harm to fetus.
Nature: Genetic influences.
Nurture: Environmental influences.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define teratogen and its effects.
Determine if teratogens are nature or nurture.
Identify which prenatal stages are affected by teratogens.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Teratogens are environmental agents (nurture) that can affect development during the embryo and fetal stages.

Q30. Genes, DNA, chromosomes, recessive and dominant traits.

Background

Topic: Genetics and Development

This question is about basic genetic concepts and inheritance.

Key Terms:

Gene: Unit of heredity.
DNA: Molecule carrying genetic information.
Chromosome: Structure containing DNA.
Dominant Trait: Expressed when present.
Recessive Trait: Expressed only when both alleles are recessive.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each term: gene, DNA, chromosome, dominant, recessive.
Explain how traits are inherited.
Think about examples of dominant and recessive traits.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Genes are units of heredity found on chromosomes, which are made of DNA. Dominant traits are expressed when present; recessive traits require two recessive alleles to be expressed.

Q31. Piaget theory cognitive development 4 stages: In which stage does operant conditioning take place? Abstract thinking? Conservation?

Background

Topic: Cognitive Development

This question is about Piaget's stages and the abilities associated with each.

Key Terms:

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.
Conservation: Understanding quantity remains the same.
Abstract Thinking: Thinking about concepts beyond the concrete.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List Piaget's four stages.
Identify which stage involves operant conditioning (learning by consequences).
Determine which stage includes abstract thinking and conservation.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Operant conditioning: sensorimotor; abstract thinking: formal operational; conservation: concrete operational.

Q32. Vygotsky: What does the zone of proximal development mean?

Background

Topic: Cognitive Development

This question is about Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD).

Key Terms:

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Range between what a learner can do alone and with help.
Scaffolding: Support provided to help learning.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define ZPD and its significance.
Explain how scaffolding helps learners progress through the ZPD.
Think about examples of learning with guidance.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The zone of proximal development is the range between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance or support.