Language Development and Communication: Key Concepts in Psychology

Language and Communication

Definitions and Distinctions

Understanding the difference between communication and language is fundamental in psychology. Communication refers to the process of exchanging information or signals between organisms, while language is a uniquely human skill involving a structured system of symbols and rules used to communicate complex ideas and information.

• Communication: The process of exchanging information or signals between organisms. Examples include animal signals, gestures, and vocalizations.

• Language: A human-specific system that can generate an infinite number of novel utterances, refer to intangible or abstract things, and be used internally as thought, influencing neural organization.

Key Point: All language is communication, but not all communication is language.

Examples and Applications

• Bees performing a "waggle dance" to direct other bees to pollen: Communication

• A parent and teenager discussing college majors: Language

• Vervet monkeys using calls to warn colony mates: Communication

Units of Language

Building Blocks of Language

Language is composed of several hierarchical units, each governed by specific rules.

• Sentence: The largest unit, representing a complete thought and following rules of grammar.

• Phrase: A group of words forming part of a sentence.

• Morpheme: The smallest unit of language with meaning (e.g., "dog", "-ed").

• Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound in language (e.g., /d/, /o/, /g/).

Syntax rules determine which words can be combined and in what order. For example, English uses subject-verb-object order: "The dog fetched the ball."

Examples of Morphemes

• Talking: "talk" + "-ing" (2 morphemes)

• Book: "book" (1 morpheme)

• Ducks: "duck" + "-s" (2 morphemes)

Phonemes vs. Morphemes

• Phonemes: Smallest units of sound.

• Morphemes: Smallest units of meaning.

Distinguishing Speech Sounds

Infant Phoneme Discrimination

Research by Janet Werker in the 1980s demonstrated that infants are born with the ability to distinguish between phonemes, even those not present in their native language. However, around 10-12 months, this ability declines for non-native phonemes as infants specialize in their native language.

• Phonetic contrast example: "ra" vs. "la" (exists in English, not Japanese).

• Method: Infants trained to turn their head to a target sound.

Key Finding: Over the first year, infants get better at distinguishing phonemes in their native language but lose the ability to discriminate non-native phonemes.

Language Milestones

Stages of Language Development

Language development follows predictable milestones, with comprehension skills generally developing before production skills. Grammatical errors are common and often result from over-applying rules.

Average Age	Productive Language Milestones
0-4 months	Cooing (vowel-sounds – aaah, oooh)
4-10 months	Babbling (combining consonants and vowels – da, ma, ba, ga)
10-18 months	Begins using single words (simple nouns and verbs)
18-24 months	Telegraphic speech (short sentences, e.g., "Throw ball")
24-36 months	Longer sentences, use of articles, adjectives (e.g., "Give me the donut")
36-60 months	Overregularization (applying regular grammatical rules to irregular words, e.g., "runned")
60+ months	Adult-like grammar skills, sentence length and vocabulary grow rapidly

Examples of Overregularization

• "Two mouses" instead of "two mice"

• "Runned" instead of "ran"

Theories of Language Development

Major Theoretical Perspectives

Three main theories explain how language is acquired:

Behaviorist Theory B.F. Skinner	Nativist Theory Noam Chomsky	Interactionist Theory Jerome Bruner
Language learned through operant conditioning. Children repeat phrases reinforced by saying. Adults reinforce or discourage use.	Humans born with universal grammar. Sensitive period for language acquisition. Newborn phoneme discrimination.	Infants born with innate capacity for language. Social factors influence language learning. Infant-directed speech aids learning.
Support: Reinforcement and imitation.	Support: Sensitive period, evidence for universal grammar.	Support: Social interaction, infant-directed speech, Nicaraguan sign language studies.
Critique: Can't account for learning without reinforcement, overregularization, or universal grammar.	Critique: Underestimates role of interaction, hard to find direct evidence of universal grammar.	Critique: Some overlap with behaviorist and nativist theories.

Key Concepts

• Operant Conditioning: Learning through reinforcement and punishment.

• Universal Grammar: Innate set of grammatical principles shared by all languages.

• Sensitive Period: Optimal time for language acquisition, often before puberty.

• Infant-Directed Speech: Simplified, exaggerated speech used by adults to communicate with infants.

Summary Table: Key Terms and Concepts

Term	Definition	Example
Phoneme	Smallest unit of sound	/b/ in "bat"
Morpheme	Smallest unit of meaning	"un-" in "undo"
Syntax	Rules for sentence structure	"The cat sat on the mat."
Overregularization	Applying regular rules to irregular words	"goed" instead of "went"
Telegraphic Speech	Short, content-only sentences	"Throw ball"

Additional info:

• Language development is a central topic in developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and linguistics.

• Research on infant phoneme discrimination highlights the importance of early experience and neural plasticity.

• Theories of language development inform educational practices and interventions for language disorders.