Chapter 8: what are thinking, intelligence, and language Part 2

Study Guide - Smart Notes

Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.

What Is Language?

Definition and Importance

Language is a system of communication—spoken, written, or signed—based on symbols. It is essential for expressing thoughts, sharing information, and connecting with others. Language enables us to comprehend, read, and write, and is fundamental to human cognition and social interaction.

What Are the Basic Properties of Language?

Key Properties of Language

Phonology: The sound system of a language, including its basic sounds or phonemes. For example, the English words "cat" and "kit" begin with different phonemes, /k/ and /c/.
Morphology: The rules for word formation. The smallest unit of meaning is a morpheme. For example, "helper" has two morphemes: "help" and "-er" (one who helps).
Syntax: The rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences. For example, "John kissed Emily" is syntactically correct, while "Kissed John Emily" is not.
Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences. For example, "The bicycle talked the boy into buying a candy bar" is syntactically correct but semantically nonsensical.
Pragmatics: The practical use of language, including the ability to use words to get what one wants and to understand context. For example, using "Autobus?" in Spain to ask for a bus.

What Is the Connection Between Language and Cognition?

Language and Thought

Language is a symbolic system that allows us to express and organize thoughts.
The linguistic relativity hypothesis (Whorf, 1956) suggests that language shapes the way we think. For example, the number of words for "snow" in different languages may influence how speakers perceive snow.
Language helps us make inferences, solve problems, and store memories.

How Does Language Influence Cognition?

Language can affect perception and categorization (e.g., color terms, gender differences in color naming).
Integrating grammar from other languages can influence thought (e.g., using the word "fruit" for a group vs. an individual piece).
Language can influence personality and self-perception, especially in bilingual individuals.
Grammatical structures (e.g., possession in Maliseet-Passamaquoddy) can shape how speakers think about relationships and ownership.

How Does Cognition Influence Language?

Cognitive development can influence language acquisition and use.
Research with animals (e.g., dolphins) challenges the uniqueness of human language in referring to absent objects.
There is evidence that general intellectual abilities and language abilities are related, but not identical.
Bilingualism may enhance executive function and cognitive flexibility.

How Do Biology and the Environment Influence Language?

How Does Biology Influence Language?

Language is a relatively recent human adaptation, emerging about 100,000 years ago.
Biological evolution (e.g., changes in the brain and vocal apparatus) enabled humans to develop complex language.
Language learning is supported by innate biological mechanisms (e.g., Chomsky's theory of universal grammar).

Are We Born to Learn Language?

Noam Chomsky argued that humans are biologically prepared to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way.
Children worldwide acquire language milestones at similar ages, regardless of language or culture.
Infants can discriminate speech sounds from birth and begin to acquire language rapidly in the first years of life.

How Are the Brain and Language Connected?

Specific brain regions are involved in language processing, such as Broca's area (speech production) and Wernicke's area (language comprehension).
Brain imaging studies show that language processing involves complex neural networks.
Damage to language areas can result in aphasia (language impairment).

How Does the Environment Influence Language?

Environmental input is crucial for language development. Children deprived of language exposure (e.g., Genie case) show severe deficits.
Social interaction, parental speech, and cultural context all influence language acquisition.
Children learn language best when immersed in a rich linguistic environment from an early age.
Socioeconomic status can affect the amount and quality of language exposure children receive.

How Does Language Develop Over the Lifespan?

Milestones of Language Development

Language development follows a predictable sequence, with most children acquiring the basic structure of their language and a large vocabulary by adulthood.

Age	Milestones
0–6 Months	Cooing; discrimination of vowels; babbling present by 6 months
6–12 Months	Babbling expands to include sounds of spoken language; gestures used to communicate; first words spoken (10–13 months)
12–18 Months	Understands 50+ words on average
18–24 Months	Vocabulary increases to ~200 words; two-word combinations
2 Years	Vocabulary rapidly increases; correct use of plurals, past tense, some prepositions
3–4 Years	Mean length of utterances increases to 3–4 morphemes; use of yes/no and wh- questions
5–6 Years	Vocabulary reaches ~10,000 words; coordination of simple sentences
6–8 Years	Vocabulary continues to increase; more skilled use of syntactical rules; conversational skills improve
9–11 Years	Word definitions include synonyms; conversational strategies improve
11–14 Years	Vocabulary increases with abstract words; understanding of complex grammar; increased understanding of word function; understands metaphor and satire
15–20 Years	Understands adult literary works

Additional Notes on Language Development

Babies can discriminate speech sounds before their first words.
By 10–13 months, children utter their first words; by 18–24 months, they use two-word statements.
Vocabulary and grammar skills increase rapidly in early childhood.
Language learning continues throughout life, though the ability to acquire a native accent decreases with age.
Learning a second language is easier in childhood but possible at any age.

Psychological Inquiry: Emojis as Language

Research on Emojis

Studies show that people use similar grammatical rules when using emojis as when using words.
Emojis can convey meaning and follow patterns similar to language structure.

Summary Table: Language Development Milestones

Age	Milestone
0–6 Months	Cooing, vowel discrimination, babbling
6–12 Months	Babbling expands, gestures, first words
12–18 Months	Understands 50+ words
18–24 Months	Vocabulary ~200 words, two-word combinations
2 Years	Vocabulary increases, plurals, past tense, prepositions
3–4 Years	Longer utterances, questions
5–6 Years	Vocabulary ~10,000 words, simple sentences
6–8 Years	Vocabulary increases, syntactical rules, conversation
9–11 Years	Synonyms, conversational strategies
11–14 Years	Abstract words, complex grammar, metaphor
15–20 Years	Adult literary works

Additional info: These notes expand on the textbook content by providing definitions, examples, and context for each property of language, as well as summarizing research findings and developmental milestones. The tables are reconstructed from the original images and text for clarity and completeness.