Language, Thinking, and Reasoning: Foundations and Applications in Psychology

Language

Definition and Importance

Language is the communication of information through symbols arranged according to rules. It is central to communication and closely tied to the way we think and understand the world. Notably, language develops even in the absence of formal instruction and follows similar acquisition patterns across cultures.

• Language acquisition is a universal process, with children developing language skills naturally.

• Language is foundational for thought, reasoning, and social interaction.

Phonemes: The Ingredients of Language

• Phonemes are the smallest units of sound in a language.

• Most words are composed of two or more phonemes.

• Phonemes can be spelled differently (e.g., 'bait', 'weight', 'plate').

• English uses 26 letters but has 40–45 phonemes.

Cross-linguistic differences:

• Hawaiian has few phonemes.

• Japanese uses a single sound category for both 'L' and 'R' sounds.

Morphemes & Syntax

• Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language (e.g., 're-', 'book').

• Most morphemes are words, but some modify meaning (prefixes, suffixes).

• Syntax refers to the rules for constructing sentences (e.g., word order in English).

• Incorrect syntax can change or obscure meaning (e.g., 'Pizza ate I for dinner').

Nonverbal Gestures & Culture

• Nonverbal communication (gestures, facial expressions) varies across cultures.

• Gestures can have different meanings in different societies.

Language Acquisition & Deprivation

Critical Period

• The critical period is a developmental window when language acquisition is most effective.

• Deprivation during this period (e.g., 'Genie' case) impedes full language development.

• Younger individuals learn new languages more easily ('less is more' theory).

Bilingualism: The Earlier the Better

• Early exposure to multiple languages leads to higher proficiency.

• Proficiency decreases as age of acquisition increases.

Language Development Stages

• Babbling: 1–2 months (cooing), 4–10 months (babbling consonants).

• Infants initially babble all possible phonemes, but specialize in their native language by 6–8 months.

• Brains prune away sounds not needed for their language.

• Single-word stage: 8–16 months (e.g., 'up', 'mama').

• Two-word stage: 24 months (e.g., 'More juice', 'All gone!').

• Telegraphic speech: Short, essential words (e.g., 'I show book').

• By age 3, children use plurals and past tense but may overgeneralize (e.g., 'runned', 'the fishes').

• All basic rules are typically acquired by age 5.

Theories of Language Acquisition

Approach	Main Points
Learning-theory	Language learned through reinforcement and conditioning; children praised for using language; does not fully explain grammar acquisition.
Nativist	Children are born with innate knowledge of language; 'language organ' or language acquisition device; genetic basis; difficult to falsify.
Interactionist	A combination of innate mechanisms and environmental exposure; adults guide language learning; environment shapes language differences.

Guugu Yimithirr Language

• Indigenous language of Far North Queensland, Australia.

• No words for 'left' or 'right'; uses cardinal directions (north, east, south, west).

• Example: 'Pick up that item with your west-facing hand.'

How Does Language Shape Our Thinking?

Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

The language we speak influences how we think, understand, and perceive the world.

• Egocentric (self-centered) vs. geocentric (earth-centered) spatial references.

• Time perception and metaphors differ across languages.

• Language can influence how blame is assigned in events.

Thinking & Reasoning

Thinking

• Involves manipulation of mental representations of information.

• Humans are 'cognitive misers,' seeking to minimize mental effort.

Top-down Processes

• Use pre-existing knowledge to fill in gaps and streamline cognitive functioning.

• Speeds up processing and reduces complexity of new experiences.

Concepts & Prototypes

• Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., a 'table').

• Concept: Mental grouping of objects, actions, or characteristics sharing core properties.

• Prototypes can bias judgments, reinforce stereotypes, and cause us to overlook non-matching information.

Cognitive Obstacles

• Mental set: Becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting alternative solutions.

• Functional fixedness: Difficulty seeing objects as useful for purposes other than their usual function.

Reasoning & Problem Solving

• Algorithm: A rule that guarantees a solution if applied correctly; effective for well-defined problems but time-consuming.

• Heuristic: General problem-solving framework (shortcuts, rules of thumb); faster but more error-prone.

• Obstacles include cognitive biases, mental sets, and functional fixedness.

Heuristics: Usefulness and Pitfalls

• Heuristics reduce mental effort and simplify decision-making.

• They are often correct but can lead to costly errors and biases.

Types of Heuristics

• Representativeness heuristic: Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype or stereotype; can lead to base rate fallacy (ignoring statistical information).

• Availability heuristic: Estimating frequency or probability based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., news coverage of rare events).

• Anchoring heuristic: Relying on an initial piece of information (the anchor) to make decisions (e.g., sentencing recommendations in court).

Table: Anchoring in Court Study (Englich & Mussweiler, 2001)

When Prosecutor Sought	Judge's Sentence
12 months	18.70 months
34 months	28.78 months

Framing Effects

• The way a question or statement is formulated can influence decisions (gain vs. loss framing, survival vs. mortality framing).

• Example: Presenting survival rates vs. mortality rates for medical procedures changes perception.

COVID-19 & Framing

• Loss-framed messages increased anxiety but did not affect policy attitudes or behavioral intentions (across 84 countries).

• Emotional impact of loss-framed messages is significant.

Hindsight Bias

• Tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted an outcome after it has occurred.

• Leads to overconfidence in judgment and impairs learning from mistakes.

Monday Morning Quarterback Phenomenon

• Describes people who claim to know how an event should have been handled after the fact.

Confirmation Bias & Belief Perseverance

• Confirmation bias: Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support existing beliefs.

• Belief perseverance: Maintaining beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence.

Maximizing & Satisficing

• Satisficers: Settle for 'good enough' options.

• Maximizers: Evaluate every possible option, seeking the best.

• Paradox of choice: More options can lead to less satisfaction, especially for maximizers.

	6 Alternatives	30 Alternatives	Difference
Maximizers	5.64	4.73	-0.91
Satisficers	5.44	6.00	+0.46

The Downside of Heuristics & Cognitive Shortcuts

• Heuristics can lead to errors and biases, especially in high-stakes situations (e.g., wrongful convictions, stereotypes, prejudice).

• Media coverage can amplify biases (e.g., racialization of crime).

• There is a trade-off between accuracy and cognitive effort.

Case Studies

• Guy Paul Morin: Wrongfully convicted due to being perceived as a 'weird guy'—an example of the dangers of representativeness heuristic and stereotyping.

• Amanda Knox: Media and public bias influenced by her behavior and appearance, leading to wrongful arrest and conviction, later overturned.