Language, Thinking, and Reasoning: Key Concepts in Cognitive Psychology

Topic 8: Language, Thinking & Reasoning

Language

Language is the communication of information through symbols arranged according to rules. It is central to human communication and closely tied to the way we think and understand the world. Language develops even in the absence of formal instruction, and language acquisition follows similar patterns across cultures.

• Definition: A system of symbols (spoken, written, or signed) used for communication.

• Importance: Facilitates thought, social interaction, and cultural transmission.

• Development: Occurs naturally, even without explicit teaching.

Phonemes: The Ingredients of Language

Phonemes are the basic categories of sound produced by our vocal apparatus. They are the smallest units of sound that distinguish meaning in a language.

• Most words contain two or more phonemes.

• Phonemes can be spelled differently: e.g., 'bait', 'weight', 'plate'.

• English: 26 letters, but 40-45 phonemes.

• Cross-linguistic differences:

  • Hawaiian language has few phonemes.

  • Japanese has a single sound category for both 'L' and 'R'.

Morphemes & Syntax

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. Syntax refers to the set of rules for constructing sentences.

• Morphemes:

  • Most are words (e.g., 'book').

  • Some modify meaning (e.g., 're-' in 'redo').

• Syntax:

  • Rules for sentence structure (e.g., 'Pizza ate I for dinner' is incorrect in English).

Nonverbal Gestures & Culture

Nonverbal communication, such as gestures, varies across cultures and can convey different meanings.

• Examples: Peace sign, thumbs up, and other hand gestures.

• Cultural differences: The same gesture may have different interpretations in different societies.

Language Acquisition & Deprivation

There is a critical period for language acquisition, during which proficiency is maximal. Deprivation during this period impedes the ability to fully acquire and use language.

• Critical period: Early life is optimal for language learning.

• Case study: Genie (deprived of language during critical period).

• Younger learners: More successful at acquiring new languages.

Bilingualism: The Earlier the Better

Early exposure to multiple languages leads to higher proficiency. The earlier a person learns a second language, the better their mastery.

• Proficiency declines with age of acquisition.

• Graphical data: Shows proficiency decreasing as age of exposure increases.

Language Development

Babbling

• 1-2 months: Cooing

• 4-10 months: Babbling (consonants)

• Babble all sounds, then specialize in native language by 6-8 months

• Born able to recognize all phonemes; unused sounds are pruned

Words & Phrases

• 8-16 months: Single word stage (e.g., 'up', 'mama')

• 24 months: Two-word stage (e.g., 'More juice', 'All gone')

• Telegraphic speech: Short, simple phrases ('I show book')

Sentences & More

• By age 3: Use plurals and past tense, but overgeneralize (e.g., 'runned', 'fishes')

• By age 5: Acquire all basic grammatical rules

How Do Children Acquire Language?

Learning Theory	Nativist Theory
Reinforcement & conditioning; children praised for using language; proficiency increases with parental input; does not fully explain grammar acquisition	Children born with basic knowledge of language; 'language organ' or acquisition device is pre-programmed; gene related to language development; difficult to falsify

Interactionist Theory

• Combination of innate mechanisms and environmental exposure

• Adults guide language acquisition (not pure imitation)

• Environment shapes language differences

Guugu Yimithirr Language

The Guugu Yimithirr language, spoken by indigenous people in Far North Queensland, Australia, uses cardinal directions (north, east, south, west) instead of words for left and right. This influences spatial cognition and communication.

• Example: 'Pick up that item with your west-facing hand.'

How Does Language Shape Our Thinking?

Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

The language we speak influences how we think, understand, and perceive the world.

• Egocentric vs. geocentric spatial orientation

• Time perception and metaphors

• Language and blame assignment

Thinking & Reasoning

Thinking

Thinking involves the manipulation of mental representations of information. Cognitive economy refers to the tendency to minimize cognitive effort, making us 'cognitive misers.'

• Top-down processes: Use pre-existing knowledge to fill gaps, streamline cognitive functioning, and reduce effort.

Concepts & Prototypes

• Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., a 'table').

• Concept: Knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions, or characteristics that share core properties.

• Risks: Can lead to biased judgments, reinforce stereotypes, and overlook non-matching information.

Cognitive Obstacles

• Mental set: Stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting alternative solutions.

• Functional fixedness: Difficulty using objects in novel ways.

Reasoning & Problem Solving

• Algorithm: Rule that guarantees a solution if applied correctly; works for well-defined problems but is time-consuming.

• Heuristic: General problem-solving framework (shortcuts, rules of thumb); faster but prone to error.

• Obstacles: Cognitive biases, mental sets, functional fixedness.

Why Are Heuristics Useful (and Necessary)?

• Impossible to consider all information

• Reduce mental effort

• Simplify decision-making

• Often correct, but can lead to errors

Types of Heuristics

Representativeness Heuristic

• Basing judgments on similarity to an abstract ideal, expectation, or stereotype

• Base rate fallacy: Ignoring statistical base rates

Availability Heuristic

• Basing estimates of frequency or probability on how easily examples come to mind

• Example: News stories about rare events (shark attacks, plane crashes) make them seem more common

• Study: Karlsson, Loewenstein & Ariely (2008): Insurance purchases increase after natural disasters

Anchoring Heuristic

• Relying on a single piece of information (the anchor) to inform decisions

• Example: Judge's sentence influenced by prosecutor's recommendation

When Prosecutor Sought	Judge's Sentence
12 months	18.70 months
34 months	28.78 months

Framing

• The way a question or statement is formulated can influence decision-making

• Gain vs. loss framing, survival vs. mortality framing

• Example:

  • "90% survival rate" vs. "10% fatality rate" for the same procedure

COVID-19 & Framing

• Loss-framed messages increase anxiety but do not affect policy attitudes or behavioral intentions

• Emotional toll of loss-framed messages

Biases in Reasoning

Hindsight Bias

• Tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted something after it has occurred

• Leads to overconfidence in judgment and impairs learning from mistakes

Monday Morning Quarterback Phenomena

• Critiquing decisions after the fact, with the benefit of hindsight

Confirmation Bias & Belief Perseverance

• Confirmation bias: Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs

• Belief perseverance: Maintaining beliefs despite contrary evidence

Maximizing & Satisficing

• Satisficers: Settle for "good enough" options

• Maximizers: Evaluate every possible option

• Paradox of choice: More options can lead to less satisfaction

	6 Alternatives	30 Alternatives	Difference
Maximizers	5.64	4.73	-0.91
Satisficers	5.44	6.00	+0.46

The Downside of Heuristics & Cognitive Shortcuts

• Can lead to costly errors and bias, especially in high-stakes situations

• Examples:

  • Pursuing the wrong person in criminal investigations (representativeness)

  • Stereotypes and prejudice

  • Racialization of crime in news media (availability)

• Trade-off between accuracy and effort

Case Studies

Guy Paul Morin

• Wrongfully convicted of murder due to being perceived as a 'weird guy' (representativeness heuristic)

• Outlier status led to suspicion and conviction

Amanda Knox

• Accused of murder while studying abroad

• Media coverage focused on her 'weird' behavior, reinforcing stereotypes

• Conviction overturned by Italian courts in 2011; acquitted in 2015