Learning and Conditioning: Classical and Operant Approaches in Psychology

Learning in Psychology

Introduction to Learning

Learning is a process through which experience produces lasting changes in behavior or mental processes. It involves acquiring new knowledge or skills and adapting to new situations. In psychology, learning is studied as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience.

• Definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

• Forms of Learning: Includes classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

• Applications: Used to understand behavior modification, habit formation, and therapy.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a similar response. Ivan Pavlov's experiments with dogs are foundational in this area.

• Key Terms:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response (e.g., food).

  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural response to the UCS (e.g., salivation).

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, elicits a response (e.g., bell).

  • Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

• Pavlov's Experiment:

  • Dogs were presented with food (UCS), which caused salivation (UCR).

  • A bell (neutral stimulus) was rung before food presentation.

  • After repeated pairings, the bell alone (CS) caused salivation (CR).

Formula:

• $\text{Acquisition:} \quad \text{CS} + \text{UCS} \rightarrow \text{UCR}$

• $\text{After conditioning:} \quad \text{CS} \rightarrow \text{CR}$

Stages of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: Initial learning stage where the association between CS and UCS is formed.

• Extinction: Weakening of the conditioned response when the CS is presented without the UCS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished response after a time delay.

• Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS.

• Discrimination: Learning to respond only to the specific CS and not to similar stimuli.

Examples and Applications

• Office Example: In "The Office," Jim conditions Dwight to expect a mint when he hears a computer sound, demonstrating classical conditioning.

• Generalization Example: A dog trained to respond to a bell may also respond to similar sounds.

• Discrimination Example: A dog learns to respond only to a specific tone, not to others.

Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences such as rewards or punishments. B.F. Skinner's work with the "Skinner box" is central to this theory.

• Key Concepts:

  • Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.

  • Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., giving food).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping a loud noise).

  • Trial and Error Learning: Learner gradually acquires the correct response through repeated attempts.

• Skinner Box Experiment:

  • Rat presses lever to receive food (positive reinforcement).

  • Rat learns to avoid unpleasant stimulus (negative reinforcement).

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement determine how and when a behavior is followed by a reward.

• Interval Schedules: Reward after a certain amount of time.

• Ratio Schedules: Reward after a certain number of responses.

• Fixed Ratio: Reward after a set number of responses (e.g., factory workers paid after every 10 items).

• Variable Ratio: Reward after a variable number of responses (e.g., gambling).

Schedule Type	Definition	Example
Fixed Ratio	Reward after a set number of responses	Paid after every 10 items produced
Variable Ratio	Reward after a variable number of responses	Slot machine payouts
Fixed Interval	Reward after a set amount of time	Weekly paycheck
Variable Interval	Reward after a variable amount of time	Checking for email

Examples and Applications

• Classroom Example: Conditioning a student to touch the whiteboard by using reinforcement (tapping).

• Real-Life Example: Cleaning your room to get praise (positive reinforcement); removing chores after good behavior (negative reinforcement).

Additional Topics in Learning

Taste-Aversion Learning

Taste-aversion learning is a form of classical conditioning where an organism learns to avoid a food that has been associated with illness or negative experience.

• Example: If you get sick after eating a certain food, you may develop an aversion to it.

• Application: Explains why certain foods are avoided after negative experiences.

Experimental Neurosis

Experimental neurosis occurs when an animal is exposed to conflicting stimuli, leading to confusion and anxiety. This concept helps explain how stress and confusion can affect learning.

• Example: A dog is given conflicting signals and becomes anxious or unable to respond appropriately.

Review and Summary

• Classical Conditioning: Learning by association between stimuli.

• Operant Conditioning: Learning by consequences (reinforcement and punishment).

• Key Figures: Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning), B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning).

• Applications: Therapy, education, behavior modification, habit formation.

Additional info: These notes expand on brief points with academic context, definitions, and examples to provide a comprehensive overview suitable for college-level psychology students.