Learning: Classical and Operant Conditioning

Learning

Definition and Overview

Learning is the process by which behavior or knowledge changes as a result of experience. In psychology, learning is often studied by examining the relationship between a stimulus (S) and a response (R).

• Stimulus (S): Any event or situation that evokes a response.

• Response (R): The behavior that results from the stimulus.

• Key questions: Is learning automatic? Can it be learned? What factors increase or decrease the response?

Classical Conditioning

Definition and Key Concepts

Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is a type of learning in which an association is formed between a neutral stimulus (NS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) to produce a conditioned response (CR).

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food).

• Unconditioned Response (UR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the US (e.g., salivation).

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially produces no specific response (e.g., metronome).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously the NS, after association with the US, triggers a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Example: Pavlov's Dogs

• Food (US) → Salivation (UR)

• Food (US) + Metronome (NS) → Salivation (UR)

• Metronome (CS) → Salivation (CR)

Example: Little Albert Experiment

• Loud noise (US) → Fear response (UR)

• Loud noise (US) + White rat (NS) → Fear response (UR)

• White rat (CS) → Fear response (CR)

Additional info: The Little Albert experiment demonstrated that emotional responses could be classically conditioned in humans.

Processes of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: The initial phase of learning when a response is first established.

• Extinction: The reduction of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

Operant Conditioning

Definition and Key Concepts

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the relationship between a stimulus and response is influenced by the consequences of the behavior. This form of learning is associated with B.F. Skinner.

• Behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

• Examples: Why can gambling become addictive? Why do people repeat certain behaviors?

Principles of Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.

• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

• Negative reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

• Positive punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Negative punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Avoidance learning: Response prevents the possibility that a stimulus will occur.

• Escape learning: Response removes a stimulus that is already present.

Example Table: Reinforcement vs. Punishment

	Increase Behavior	Decrease Behavior
Add Stimulus	Positive Reinforcement	Positive Punishment
Remove Stimulus	Negative Reinforcement	Negative Punishment

Processes of Operant Conditioning

• Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers: Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs; secondary reinforcers are learned (e.g., money, praise).

• Discriminative Stimulus: A cue that signals whether a particular response will lead to a consequence.

• Discrimination: Learning to respond to a specific stimulus but not to similar ones.

• Generalization: Responding similarly to different but related stimuli.

Reinforcement Schedules

Types of Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement schedules determine how and when a behavior is followed by a reinforcer. These schedules influence the rate and stability of the learned behavior.

Schedule	Definition	Example
Fixed Ratio (FR)	Reinforcement after a set number of responses	Factory worker paid for every 10 items produced
Variable Ratio (VR)	Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses	Slot machine payouts
Fixed Interval (FI)	Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time	Weekly paycheck
Variable Interval (VI)	Reinforcement after varying time intervals	Checking for email messages

Additional info: Variable ratio schedules tend to produce high rates of responding and are highly resistant to extinction.