Learning in Psychology: Classical and Operant Conditioning

Chapter 5: Learning

Introduction

Learning is a fundamental concept in psychology, referring to the process by which experience produces a lasting change in behavior or mental processes. This chapter explores the major theories and principles of learning, focusing on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Classical Conditioning

Key Elements of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning first studied by Ivan Pavlov. It involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior learning (e.g., food).

• Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural response to the US (e.g., salivation).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, elicits a response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS, similar to the UR.

• Example: Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate (CR) at the sound of a bell (CS) after it was repeatedly paired with food (US).

Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Extinction: The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a period of no exposure to the CS.

• Higher-Order Conditioning: A neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an already established CS.

• Stimulus Generalization: Responses may occur to stimuli similar to the original CS.

• Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond only to the CS.

Term	Definition
Extinction	Disappearance of a learned response when CS is no longer paired with US.
Spontaneous Recovery	Return of an extinguished response after a rest period.
Higher-Order Conditioning	Pairing a new neutral stimulus with an established CS to create a new CR.
Stimulus Generalization	Responding to stimuli similar to the CS.
Stimulus Discrimination	Responding differently to similar but distinct stimuli.

What Is Actually Learned?

Research suggests that classical conditioning involves learning about the predictive relationship between stimuli. The CS must reliably signal the US for conditioning to occur. This process is adaptive, allowing organisms to prepare for significant events.

• Example: If a tone reliably predicts food, the animal learns to respond to the tone.

• Additional info: Cognitive factors such as expectations and representations of the world influence conditioning.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Learning to Like

Classical conditioning contributes to emotional responses, such as liking or disliking certain objects, people, or places.

• Example: Pairing a neutral stimulus (e.g., a song) with a pleasurable experience can lead to positive emotions toward the song.

Learning to Fear

Fear can be conditioned by pairing a neutral stimulus with an aversive event (pain, embarrassment).

• Counterconditioning: Associating the CS with a stimulus that elicits a response incompatible with fear (e.g., relaxation).

• Neurobiology: The amygdala is central to fear conditioning; extinction involves the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.

• Example: A child overcomes fear of rabbits by pairing the rabbit with a pleasant stimulus (snack).

Accounting for Taste

Conditioned taste aversions occur when a food is associated with an unpleasant outcome (e.g., nausea).

• Example: After getting sick from a meal, a person may avoid that food in the future.

• Additional info: This phenomenon is used to discourage predators from attacking livestock.

Reacting to Medical Treatments

Classical conditioning can explain reactions to medical treatments and placebos.

• Example: Cancer patients may feel nauseated by the sight or smell of a treatment room due to association with chemotherapy.

• Placebo Effect: Expectations and conditioning both contribute to placebo responses.

Operant Conditioning

The Birth of Radical Behaviorism

Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, focuses on how consequences shape voluntary behavior. Edward Thorndike’s puzzle box experiments with cats laid the groundwork for this theory.

• Radical Behaviorism: Skinner’s approach emphasized observable behavior and environmental influences.

Reinforcement and Punishment

Operant conditioning distinguishes between reinforcement (strengthening behavior) and punishment (weakening behavior).

• Primary Reinforcer: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food).

• Secondary Reinforcer: Acquires value through association (e.g., money).

• Primary Punisher: Inherently punishing (e.g., pain).

• Secondary Punisher: Acquires value through association (e.g., criticism).

Type	Definition	Example
Positive Reinforcement	Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior	Praise for studying
Negative Reinforcement	Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior	Ending scolding when attending class
Positive Punishment	Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior	Ridicule for studying too much
Negative Punishment	Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior	Loss of driver's license for texting while driving

Principles of Operant Conditioning

• Extinction: Occurs when a response is no longer reinforced.

• Stimulus Generalization: Responses may occur to similar stimuli.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Responses occur only in the presence of specific stimuli.

• Discriminative Stimulus: Signals when a response will be reinforced or punished.

• Schedules of Reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement leads to rapid learning; intermittent schedules make responses more resistant to extinction.

• Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations to train complex behaviors.

• Biological Limits: Instinctive drift and genetic predispositions can affect learning.

Skinner: The Man and the Myth

• Skinner did not deny consciousness but argued that thoughts and feelings are behaviors to be explained.

• He believed free will is an illusion and that behavior is shaped by environmental consequences.

Operant Conditioning in Real Life

The Pros and Cons of Punishment

Punishment can discourage undesirable behavior but is often misused.

• Effective Punishment: Consistent, non-abusive, informative, and paired with reinforcement of desired behavior.

• Problems: Can cause anxiety, temporary effects, poor timing, and may inadvertently reinforce misbehavior.

The Problems with Reward

Rewards can backfire if misused, especially when they undermine intrinsic motivation.

• Extrinsic Reinforcers: Rewards not inherently related to the activity (e.g., money, praise).

• Intrinsic Reinforcers: Rewards inherent to the activity (e.g., enjoyment, satisfaction).

• Overuse of extrinsic rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation and lead to issues like grade inflation.

• Effective use: Rewards should be given for achievement or progress, not mere participation.

Learning and the Mind

Latent Learning

Latent learning refers to knowledge acquired without immediate reinforcement, which may not be expressed until a reward is available.

• Example: Rats learn the layout of a maze without reinforcement, but show rapid improvement when food is introduced.

• Additional info: Latent learning suggests that organisms acquire knowledge about responses and consequences, not just specific behaviors.

Social-Cognitive Learning Theories

Observational learning occurs by watching others and modeling their behavior. Social-cognitive theories emphasize the role of thought processes and models in learning.

• Example: Children learn social behaviors by observing adults, as shown in Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments.

• Both positive and negative behaviors can be acquired through observation.