Learning: Mechanisms, Conditioning, and Observational Processes

Learning

Unlearned Behaviours: Instincts and Reflexes as Innate, Adapted Behaviours

Some behaviours are innate and do not require prior experience. These include reflexes and instincts, which are essential for survival and adaptation.

• Reflexes: Automatic, involuntary responses to specific stimuli. Reflexes are mediated by specific parts of the central nervous system (CNS), such as the brainstem. Examples: Pupillary light reflex, startle reflex, withdrawal reflex, and stretch reflex.

• Instincts: Complex patterns of behaviour that are triggered by particular stimuli. Instincts are more complex than reflexes and involve the entire organism. Examples: Migration in birds, maternal care in mammals.

What is Learning?

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge that results from experience. It is distinct from innate behaviours and involves acquiring new skills or information through experience.

• Non-associative learning: Habituation and sensitization.

• Associative learning: Classical and operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Overview

Classical conditioning involves learning to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a learned response.

• Key figures: Ivan Pavlov (discovered classical conditioning through experiments with dogs).

• Process: A previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and elicits a conditioned response (CR).

Classical Conditioning Components

Term	Definition
Neutral Stimulus (NS)	A stimulus that does not initially elicit a specific response.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)	A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)	The natural, automatic reaction to the UCS.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)	Originally the NS, becomes associated with the UCS after acquisition.
Conditioned Response (CR)	The learned response to the CS after conditioning.

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

• Acquisition: The process during which the NS is repeatedly paired with the UCS, leading to the CS eliciting the CR.

• Extinction: The CR decreases when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of the CR after a rest period following extinction.

Generalization and Discrimination

• Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

• Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli.

Example: Little Albert Experiment

• John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrated classical conditioning in humans by pairing a loud noise (UCS) with a white rat (NS), resulting in a fear response (CR) to the rat (now CS).

Operant Conditioning

Overview

Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviours are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment.

• Key figure: B.F. Skinner

• Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike): Behaviours followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur; those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely.

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Type	Definition	Example
Positive Reinforcement	Adding a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour	Giving praise for completing homework
Negative Reinforcement	Removing a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour	Turning off a loud alarm when a task is completed
Positive Punishment	Adding a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour	Scolding a child for misbehaving
Negative Punishment	Removing a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour	Taking away a toy when a child misbehaves

Schedules of Reinforcement

Reinforcement can be delivered according to different schedules, affecting the rate and strength of learning.

• Continuous reinforcement: Every response is reinforced.

• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: Only some responses are reinforced.

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Schedule	Description	Example
Fixed Interval (FI)	Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals	Weekly paycheck
Variable Interval (VI)	Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals	Checking for a random email
Fixed Ratio (FR)	Reinforcement is delivered after a set number of responses	Piecework pay
Variable Ratio (VR)	Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses	Slot machine

Latent Learning and Observational Learning

Latent Learning

Latent learning occurs without immediate reinforcement and may not be demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.

• Example: Tolman's experiments with rats navigating mazes showed that learning could occur without reinforcement, as rats formed cognitive maps of the maze.

Observational Learning

Observational learning involves acquiring new behaviours by watching others. This process is also known as social learning.

• Key processes: Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

• Example: Children learning to tie their shoes by watching parents.

Biological Influences on Learning

Biological factors can affect the ease and speed with which behaviours are learned, such as preparedness and instinctive drift.

• Preparedness: Some behaviours are more easily learned due to evolutionary adaptation.

• Instinctive drift: The tendency for learned behaviour to revert to instinctive behaviour.

Media Influence and Learned Violence

Exposure to violent media can influence behaviour through observational learning, as demonstrated in Bandura's Bobo doll experiments.

• Example: Children exposed to aggressive models on TV may imitate aggressive behaviours.

Key Terms and Definitions

• Habituation: Decreased response to a repeated stimulus.

• Sensitization: Increased response to a repeated stimulus.

• Extinction: The reduction of a learned response when the UCS is no longer presented.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished response.

Important Equations

• Law of Effect: $\text{Behaviour} \rightarrow \text{Consequence} \rightarrow \text{Change in likelihood of behaviour}$

Additional info: Some diagrams and tables were inferred from context and standard psychology content. The notes cover core concepts from Chapter 6: Learning, including classical and operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules, latent and observational learning, and biological influences.