Learning: Principles and Applications (Chapter 6 Study Notes)

Learning

Introduction to Learning

Learning refers to relatively permanent changes in an organism's behavior or thought as a result of experience. It is a central concept in psychology, explaining how nurture shapes individuals.

• Habituation: Decreased response to repeated stimuli over time.

• Sensitization: Increased response to repeated stimuli over time.

Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning

John Watson and Behaviorism

John Watson (1913) proposed that classical conditioning explains all aspects of human psychology, emphasizing observable patterns of stimulus and response while denying the existence of mind or consciousness. He argued that individual differences in behavior arise from different learning experiences.

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an originally neutral stimulus comes to elicit a new response after being paired with another stimulus that reflexively elicits that response. This process is based on association.

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not elicit any particular response (e.g., metronome).

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Automatically elicits a reflexive response (e.g., meat powder).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): Automatic, reflexive response to UCS (e.g., salivation).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response after association (e.g., metronome).

• Conditioned Response (CR): Response previously associated with UCS, now elicited by CS (e.g., salivation).

Classical Conditioning Example

• Dog Experiment: Metronome (NS) does not cause salivation. Meat powder (UCS) causes salivation (UCR). Pairing metronome with meat powder leads to metronome (CS) causing salivation (CR).

• Human Example: Shampoo (NS) does not cause happiness. Romantic partner (UCS) causes happiness (UCR). Pairing shampoo with romantic partner leads to shampoo (CS) causing happiness (CR).

Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: Gradual learning of the conditioned response.

• Extinction: Conditioned response decreases and eventually disappears when CS is presented without UCS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Extinct CR reappears if CS is presented again after a delay (renewal effect).

Generalization, Discrimination, and Higher Order Conditioning

• Stimulus Generalization: Stimuli similar to the original CS elicit the CR.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Less pronounced CR to stimuli that differ from the original CS.

• Higher Order Conditioning: Pairing a new CS with the original CS to produce a CR; effect weakens with each level.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Advertising: Pairing products with positive stimuli to elicit favorable responses.

• Disgust Reactions: Associating certain stimuli with disgust through conditioning.

• Acquisition of Fears/Phobias: Example: Little Albert experiment—rat (NS) paired with gong (UCS) leads to crying (UCR); rat becomes CS, crying becomes CR. Demonstrates stimulus generalization.

Operant Conditioning

Introduction to Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is learning controlled by consequences, where organisms "operate" on their environment to obtain desired outcomes.

E.L. Thorndike and the Law of Effect

• Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

• Puzzle Box Experiment: Cats learned to escape faster over repeated trials.

B.F. Skinner and Radical Behaviorism

• Skinner Box: Device that electronically records animal responses.

• Emphasized that thinking and emotion are behaviors; learning is based on consequences of past actions.

Terminology in Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement: Outcome strengthens the probability of a response.

• Positive Reinforcement: Administering a stimulus (e.g., giving M&Ms for using the toilet).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing a stimulus (e.g., ending timeout when child stops throwing a fit).

• Punishment: Weakens the probability of a response.

• Positive Punishment: Administering a stimulus (e.g., spanking).

• Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus (e.g., taking away a cell phone).

• Discriminative Stimulus: Signal that a response will receive reinforcement.

• Extinction: Stop delivering reinforcer following previously reinforced behavior.

• Stimulus Generalization: Response to similar, but not identical, stimuli.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Diminished response due to recognition of difference between two stimuli.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforce behavior every time it occurs.

• Partial Reinforcement: Reinforce behavior intermittently; leads to greater resistance to extinction.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Animal Training: Shaping—reinforce behaviors that are close to the target behavior (e.g., teaching a dog to roll over).

• Decreasing Procrastination: Positively reinforce less frequent behavior with a more frequent behavior (e.g., watching TV only after completing homework).

Therapeutic Applications

• Token Economy: System to reinforce appropriate behavior and extinguish inappropriate ones.

• Secondary Reinforcers: Neutral objects associated with primary reinforcers (e.g., stickers on a chart).

• Primary Reinforcers: Naturally increase the target behavior (e.g., special treat or activity).

Comparison Table: Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Target Behavior	Elicited automatically	Emitted voluntarily
Reward	Unconditional	Contingent on behavior
System Involved	Autonomic nervous system	Skeletal muscles

Cognitive Models of Learning

S-O-R Psychology

Cognitive models emphasize the role of the organism in interpreting stimuli, leading to different responses. Expectations and cognitive conditioning play a significant role in learning.

Latent Learning (Edward Tolman)

• Competence vs. Performance: Learning can occur without immediate performance.

• Reinforcement is not necessary for learning: Demonstrated by rats forming cognitive maps of mazes without reinforcement.

• Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of spatial environments.

Observational Learning

Learning by Watching Others

Observational learning occurs when individuals acquire new behaviors by watching others, rather than through direct experience or trial-and-error.

• Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire when observing others perform actions, facilitating imitation.

• Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment: Demonstrated learning aggression through modeling.

• Media Violence: Exposure to media violence shows a positive correlation with real-world aggression, but causality is debated.

Additional info: These notes expand on the original slides by providing definitions, examples, and context for key terms and concepts, ensuring a comprehensive understanding suitable for exam preparation.