Memory, Cognition, Intelligence, and Learning: Core Concepts in Psychology

Memory

Definition and Key Processes

Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved over time. It allows us to retain and recall past experiences and knowledge.

• Encoding: Getting information into our brain.

• Storage: Retaining information over time.

• Retrieval: Getting information out of storage when needed.

Getting Information In

• Automatic processing: Refers to unconscious encoding of incidental information.

• Attention: Critical for encoding; focusing on a narrow range of stimuli improves memory, while multitasking reduces performance.

Levels of Processing

• Structural encoding: Encoding the physical structure of stimuli (e.g., images).

• Phonetic encoding: Encoding the sound of words.

• Semantic encoding: Encoding the meaning of words and concepts.

Improving Encoding

• Elaboration: Linking new information to existing knowledge.

• Visual imagery: Creating mental pictures to represent information.

• Motivation to remember: Extra effort to organize and encode information for future recall.

Memory Storage

• Sensory Memory: Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief period (about 0.25 seconds).

• Short-term Memory: Limited capacity; information is retained for about 20 seconds unless actively rehearsed.

• Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful units to enhance short-term memory capacity.

• Long-term Memory: Unlimited capacity; stores information for extended periods. Memories are more vivid if associated with intense emotions (e.g., flashbulb memories).

Types of Memory

• Declarative Memory: Facts and events.

  • Episodic memory: Personal experiences with time stamps.

  • Semantic memory: General knowledge not tied to specific times.

• Non-declarative Memory: Skills and procedures (e.g., riding a bike).

Retrieval

• Retrieval cues: Stimuli that help access memories.

• Context: Placing oneself in the context of encoding improves retrieval.

• Schemas: Organized clusters of knowledge based on previous experiences.

• Interference: Proactive and retroactive interference can hinder recall.

Retention

• Recall: Reproducing information without cues.

• Recognition: Identifying previously learned information from options.

• Relearning: Memorizing information again to measure retention.

Cognition

Definition and Concepts

Cognition encompasses all mental activities related to thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

• Concepts: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people.

• Prototypes: Best examples of a concept; recognition is faster when something matches a prototype.

Problem Solving

• Active efforts to discover solutions to achieve goals.

• Types of problems:

  • Problems of Inducing Structure: Discovering relationships among items.

  • Problems of Arrangement: Arranging parts to satisfy a criterion.

  • Problems of Transformation: Carrying out a sequence of changes to reach a goal.

Barriers to Problem Solving

• Irrelevant information

• Functional fixedness: Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.

• Mental set: Tendency to approach problems in a particular way.

Approaches to Problem Solving

• Trial and error: Trying possible solutions until one works.

• Heuristics: Simple strategies or rules of thumb, such as forming sub-goals, searching for analogies, or taking breaks.

Decision Making

• Evaluating alternatives and making choices.

• Theory of Bounded Rationality: People use simple strategies and may not make optimal decisions.

• Heuristics in Decision Making:

  • Representativeness heuristic: Judging likelihood by similarity to prototypes.

  • Availability heuristic: Estimating likelihood based on memory availability.

• Common flaws: Ignoring base rates, gambler's fallacy, overestimating the improbable, loss aversion.

Intelligence

Definition and Early History

Intelligence is a socially constructed concept involving the ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

• Francis Galton: Explored hereditary aspects of intelligence; coined "nature vs nurture".

Modern Testing Movement

• Alfred Binet: Developed the first intelligence test to identify children needing educational support.

• Lewis Terman: Revised Binet's test for use in the U.S. (Stanford-Binet).

Measuring Intelligence

• IQ (Intelligence Quotient): $\text{IQ} = \frac{\text{Mental Age}}{\text{Chronological Age}} \times 100$

• WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale): Most commonly used intelligence test for adults.

• Standardization: Scores are compared to a pretested group; most scores fall near the mean (100), with a standard deviation of 15.

• Reliability: Consistency of test results.

• Validity: Whether a test measures what it claims to measure.

The Flynn Effect

• Average IQ scores have increased over generations, possibly due to environmental factors.

Theories of Intelligence

• Sternberg's Triarchic Theory:

  • Analytical intelligence: Academic problem-solving.

  • Creative intelligence: Generating new ideas.

  • Practical intelligence: Dealing with everyday tasks.

• Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: Intelligence includes linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic abilities.

Genetics and Intelligence

• Studies of twins suggest a genetic component to intelligence, but environment also plays a significant role.

• Adopted children's IQs resemble their adoptive parents less over time.

Learning

How We Learn

• Learning is the process of acquiring new associations.

• Associative learning links events that occur together.

• Two main types: Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

• Discovered by Ivan Pavlov with dogs.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural, unlearned response.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after association.

• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Conditioning Processes

• Acquisition: Initial learning of the association.

• Extinction: Diminished response when the US no longer follows the CS.

• Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.

• Generalization: Tendency to respond similarly to stimuli resembling the CS.

• Discrimination: Learned ability to distinguish between CS and other stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

• Organisms associate actions with consequences.

• Reinforcers: Increase the likelihood of a behavior.

• Punishers: Decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

• Shaping: Gradually guiding actions toward a desired behavior.

Types of Reinforcers

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

• Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

• Punishment: Decreases the frequency of a behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing every response.

• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: Reinforcing only some responses; leads to greater resistance to extinction.

Observational Learning

• Learning by observing others (modeling).

• Demonstrated by Bandura's Bobo doll experiment.

Additional info:

• Some explanations and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness.

• Tables and formulas have been described in text or LaTeX as appropriate.