Midterm Study Guide: Foundations of Psychology

The Science of Psychology

Foundations and Perspectives

• Father of Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt is widely regarded as the father of psychology for establishing the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. He pioneered the use of experimental methods to study consciousness.

• Definition of Psychology: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, encompassing both observable actions and internal experiences such as thoughts and emotions.

• Psychological Perspectives and Contributors:

  • Structuralism (Wundt, Titchener): Focused on breaking down mental processes into basic components.

  • Functionalism (William James): Emphasized the purpose of behavior and mental processes.

  • Psychoanalysis (Freud): Explored unconscious motives and conflicts.

  • Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner): Studied observable behavior and the effects of learning.

  • Humanism (Rogers, Maslow): Focused on free will and human potential.

  • Cognitive: Examined mental processes such as thinking and memory.

  • Biological: Investigated the physiological bases of behavior.

  • Sociocultural: Considered the influence of society and culture.

Research Methods in Psychology

• Correlations: Measure the relationship between two variables.

  • Positive correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.

  • Negative correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

  • Neutral (zero) correlation: No relationship between variables.

• Scientific Method Order:

  1. Formulate a question

  2. Form a hypothesis

  3. Test the hypothesis

  4. Draw conclusions

  5. Report results

• Types of Research:

  • Descriptive: Observes and describes behavior (e.g., case studies, surveys).

  • Experimental: Manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.

  • Correlational: Examines relationships between variables without manipulation.

• Ethics in Human Research:

  • Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): Committees that review research proposals for ethical concerns.

  • Voluntary Participation: Subjects must participate willingly and can withdraw at any time.

The Biological Perspective

Brain Structure and Function

• Brain Lobes and Functions:

  • Frontal Lobe: Reasoning, planning, movement, emotions, problem-solving.

  • Parietal Lobe: Sensory information, spatial sense, navigation.

  • Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory, language.

  • Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.

• Hindbrain and Limbic System:

  • Hindbrain: Includes the medulla (vital functions), pons (sleep, arousal), and cerebellum (coordination).

  • Limbic System: Includes the amygdala (emotion), hippocampus (memory), hypothalamus (homeostasis), and thalamus (sensory relay).

Neurons and Nervous System

• Afferent Neurons: Carry sensory information from the body to the central nervous system (CNS).

• Efferent Neurons: Carry motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

• Methods for Studying the Brain: Includes EEG, MRI, fMRI, PET scans, and lesion studies.

• Nervous System Divisions:

  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connects CNS to limbs and organs.

  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements.

  • Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

• Order of a Neuronal Message: Dendrite → Cell body (soma) → Axon → Axon terminals → Synapse.

• Parts of a Neuron:

  • Dendrites: Receive signals.

  • Cell Body (Soma): Contains nucleus, integrates information.

  • Axon: Transmits electrical impulses.

  • Myelin Sheath: Insulates axon, speeds transmission.

  • Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters.

Sensation and Perception

Basic Concepts and Theories

• Transduction: The process by which sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.

• Theories of Sight:

  • Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones detect red, green, and blue.

  • Opponent-Process Theory: Color vision is controlled by opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

• Theories of Hearing:

  • Place Theory: Pitch is determined by the location of vibration on the basilar membrane.

  • Frequency Theory: Pitch is determined by the frequency of neural impulses.

  • Volley Principle: Groups of neurons fire in rapid succession to encode higher frequencies.

• Somesthetic Senses:

  • Skin senses: Touch, pressure, temperature, pain.

  • Kinesthetic sense: Body position and movement.

  • Vestibular sense: Balance and spatial orientation.

• Gustation: Sense of taste.

• Olfaction: Sense of smell.

• Three Constancies: Size, shape, and brightness constancy—perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input.

• Gestalt Principles of Grouping: Proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and connectedness help organize sensory information into meaningful wholes.

Learning

Classical and Operant Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning: Learning through association, first described by Ivan Pavlov.

  • Major Contributors: Ivan Pavlov (dogs), John Watson (Little Albert).

  • Elements:

    • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally elicits a response.

    • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS.

    • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not elicit response before conditioning.

    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, now elicits response after association.

    • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS.

  • Effectiveness: Depends on timing, frequency, and predictability of pairings.

  • Example: Pavlov's dogs salivating to a bell after repeated pairings with food.

• Additional Components:

  • Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the CS.

  • Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to respond only to the specific CS.

  • Extinction: CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented without UCS.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of CR after a rest period.

• Operant Conditioning: Learning based on consequences, described by B.F. Skinner.

  • Major Contributors: B.F. Skinner (Skinner box), Edward Thorndike (Law of Effect).

  • Elements:

    • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

    • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

    • Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.

    • Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

  • Example: Giving a treat for a trick (positive reinforcement); taking away a toy for misbehavior (negative punishment).

• Cognitive Learning Theory: Involves mental processes; three elements include attention, memory, and expectation.

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others; effectiveness depends on attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation (Bandura's Bobo doll experiment).

Memory

Types and Processes of Memory

• Organic Amnesias:

  • Infantile Amnesia: Inability to recall memories from early childhood.

  • Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories prior to an event.

  • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after an event.

  • Alzheimer’s Disease: Progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting memory and cognition.

  • Example: A person with retrograde amnesia cannot remember events before a car accident.

• Theories of Forgetting: Decay theory, interference theory (proactive and retroactive), retrieval failure.

• Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information.

  • Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory (lasts 2-4 seconds).

  • Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory (lasts less than a second).

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds information temporarily (about 20 seconds).

  • Selective Attention: Focusing on relevant information.

  • Working Memory: Active processing and manipulation of information in STM.

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Relatively permanent storage.

  • Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Facts and events (semantic and episodic memory).

  • Non-declarative (Implicit) Memory: Skills and procedures (e.g., riding a bike).

• Brain Areas and Memory:

  • Amygdala: Emotional memories.

  • Hippocampus: Formation of new memories.

  • Pre-frontal Cortex: Working memory and decision-making.

  • Temporal Lobe: Storage of long-term memories.

  • Cerebellum: Procedural memories and motor learning.