Personality: How We Become Who We Are (Chapter 14 Study Notes)

Personality

Definition and Approaches

Personality refers to the typical way of thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterizes an individual. It is studied through various approaches to understand both general principles and unique individual differences.

• Trait: An enduring predisposition that influences behavior across many situations.

• Nomothetic approaches: Seek general principles of personality in nature, applicable to groups.

• Idiographic approaches: Focus on the unique configuration of characteristics and life history of individuals.

Causes of Personality

Genetic and Environmental Influences

Behavioral genetics research aims to disentangle the effects of genetics and environment on personality. Twin and adoption studies are central to this effort.

• Genetic factors: Inherited influences on personality traits.

• Shared environmental factors: Environmental influences shared by family members.

• Non-shared environmental factors: Unique environmental influences experienced by individuals.

Personality Correlations in Twins

Studies compare correlations of personality traits between twins reared together and apart.

Trait	Twins Reared Together Identical Twin Correlation	Twins Reared Together Fraternal Twin Correlation	Twins Reared Apart Identical Twin Correlation	Twins Reared Apart Fraternal Twin Correlation
Anxiety proneness	0.52	0.24	0.61	0.27
Aggression	0.35	0.14	0.46	0.16
Alienation	0.51	0.06	0.50	0.08
Impulse control	0.54	0.15	0.49	0.13
Emotional well-being	0.58	0.18	0.61	0.19
Traditionalism	0.36	0.07	0.33	0.09

Additional info: These correlations suggest genetic factors play a significant role, but non-shared environment also contributes. Shared environment has little effect on adult personality.

Molecular Genetics and Caution

• Genes code for proteins, not specific behaviors.

• Genetic influence on traits is indirect and moderated by environment.

• Molecular genetics studies aim to identify specific genes linked to traits, but most effects are weak and difficult to replicate.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud's Principles and Structure of Personality

Sigmund Freud developed the first comprehensive theory of personality, emphasizing unconscious processes and early childhood experiences.

• Psychic determinism: All psychological events have a cause.

• Symbolic meaning: Behaviors and symptoms often symbolize deeper psychological issues.

• Unconscious motivation: Much of our behavior is driven by unconscious desires.

Freud's model divides the psyche into three components:

• Id: Basic instincts, operates on the pleasure principle (immediate gratification).

• Ego: Principal decision maker, operates on the reality principle.

• Superego: Sense of morality, delays gratification until appropriate.

Conflict among these components leads to psychological distress.

Dreams and Symbolism

• Dreams reflect unconscious struggles and wish fulfillment.

• Symbols in dreams are personal, not universal.

Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies used by the ego to minimize anxiety.

Defence Mechanism	Definition	Example
Repression	Motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses	A person who witnesses a traumatic combat scene finds themselves unable to remember it
Denial	Motivated forgetting of distressing experiences	A parent who loses a child in a car accident insists the child is still alive
Reaction-formation	Transforming an anxiety-provoking emotion into its opposite	A married woman who is sexually attracted to a co-worker experiences hatred toward him
Projection	Unconscious attribution of negative qualities to others	A man with powerful unconscious sexual impulses claims women are always "after him"
Displacement	Directing an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a more acceptable one	A golfer angrily throws their club into the woods after they miss an easy putt
Rationalization	Providing reasonable-sounding explanations for unreasonable behaviors or failures	A political candidate who loses an election convinces themselves that they didn't really want the position after all
Intellectualization	Avoiding emotions associated with anxiety by focusing on abstract and impersonal thoughts	A woman whose husband cheats on her reassures herself that "according to evolutionary psychologists, males are naturally sexually promiscuous, so there's nothing to worry about"
Sublimation	Transforming a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired and socially valued goal	A child who enjoys beating up on other children grows up to become a successful professional boxer

Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud's Stages

Freud proposed that personality develops through a series of stages, each focused on an erogenous zone. Fixation at any stage can affect adult personality.

Stage	Approximate Age	Primary Source of Sexual Pleasure
Oral	Birth to 12–18 months	Sucking and drinking
Anal	18 months to 3 years	Alleviating tension by expelling feces
Phallic*	3 years to 6 years	Genitals (penis or clitoris); includes Oedipus and Electra complexes
Latency	6 years to 12 years	Dormant sexual stage
Genital	12 years and beyond	Renewed sexual impulses; emergence of mature romantic relationships

Major Criticisms of Freud's Theory

• Unfalsifiable (cannot be empirically tested)

• Failed predictions

• Questionable conception of unconscious

• Unrepresentative samples

• Overemphasis on shared environment

Neo-Freudian Theories

Key Differences and Concepts

• Less emphasis on sexuality, more on social drives

• More optimistic about personal growth

• Adler: Style of life (individual's way of achieving superiority), inferiority complex (low self-esteem leading to overcompensation)

• Jung: Collective unconscious (shared ancestral memories), archetypes (universal symbols)

Behavioural and Social Learning Approaches

Behavioural Approaches

• Personality differences stem from learning histories

• Habits acquired by classical and operant conditioning

• Personality is influenced by genetic factors and contingencies

Social Learning Theories

• Learning is important, but thinking also plays a crucial role

• Reciprocal determinism: People influence each other's behavior

• Focus on observational learning and locus of control

Major Criticisms

• Radical behaviorists ignore cognition, which is not supported by research

• Social learning's emphasis on shared environment is not supported

Humanistic Models

Carl Rogers and Self-Actualization

• Rejected determinism, embraced free will

• Proposed self-actualization as the core motive in personality (drive to develop innate potential)

Roger's Model – Three Elements

• The organism: Innate, genetic blueprint, positive and helpful

• The self: Set of beliefs about who we are

• Conditions of worth: Expectations we place on ourselves, can result in incongruence

Self-Actualized Individuals (Maslow)

• Creative, spontaneous, accepting of themselves and others

• May appear aloof or difficult to work with

• Prone to peak experiences (intense excitement and tranquility, profound connection to the world)

Major Criticisms

• Comparative psychology challenges the claim that human nature is entirely positive (e.g., aggression in humans and primates)

• Methodological difficulties in research

• Non-falsifiable assumptions

Trait Models

Factor Analysis and the Big Five

• Trait models describe and understand the structure of personality

• Factor analysis: Statistical technique analyzing correlations among responses to identify underlying traits

• Five traits repeatedly identified: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

Big Five and Behaviour

• Predict job performance, academic achievement, physical health, and life span

• Traits are similar across cultures, but prevalence rates differ (individualist vs collectivist societies)

Other Models

• HEXACO (adds honesty-humility)

• Big Three

• Big Two

Can Personality Change?

• Some variability before age 30, little thereafter

• Some evidence for change with drugs (e.g., antidepressants), but ethical considerations remain

Personality Assessment

Early Attempts and Flawed Methodologies

• Phrenology (head shape), physiognomy (facial characteristics), Sheldon's body types, blood type

• Lacked reliability and validity

Structured Personality Tests

• Paper-and-pencil tests with fixed responses

• Developed using a rational/theoretical method (clear conceptualization of trait, then item writing)

• Some tests (NEO PI-R) have strong reliability and validity; others (Myers-Briggs) do not

Projective Tests

• Require interpretation of ambiguous stimuli

• Based on the projective hypothesis (people project aspects of personality onto stimuli)

• Controversial due to disputed reliability and validity

• Includes the Rorschach Inkblot Test

Rorschach Inkblot Test

• Ten symmetrical inkblots (five black-and-white, five color)

• Respondents describe what each inkblot resembles

• Supposed to reveal personality traits

• Unknown test-retest reliability, problematic interrater reliability, little evidence for detecting mental disorders, lack of incremental validity

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

• Subjects construct stories based on pictures

• Little evidence for adequate reliability or validity

Pitfalls in Personality Assessment

• PT Barnum effect: Tendency to accept vague, high base rate descriptors as accurate (e.g., astrology, tarot readings)

• Personality assessment is useful only with valid, reliable instruments