PSYC 104 Exam 3 Study Guide: Learning, Memory, and Emotion & Motivation

Chapter 6: Learning

Section 6.1: Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response. Ivan Pavlov's model is central to understanding this process.

• Habituation: A decrease in response to a repeated stimulus over time. Example: Not noticing the sound of a ticking clock after a while.

• Sensitization: An increase in response to a repeated stimulus. Example: Becoming more annoyed by a dripping faucet.

• Pavlov’s Model: Involves pairing a neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) to produce a conditioned response (e.g., salivation).

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not elicit a response initially.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally elicits a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural response to US.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously NS, now elicits response after association.

• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS.

• Acquisition: The phase where the CS and US are paired, leading to learning. Example: Dog learns to salivate at bell.

• Extinction: The reduction of a conditioned response when the CS is presented without the US. Example: Bell rings without food, dog stops salivating.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction and a rest period.

• Renewal Effect: Recovery of a conditioned response when the organism is returned to the original context.

• Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the CS.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Responding only to the specific CS.

• Higher-Order Conditioning: Using a CS to condition a new NS.

• Applications: Classical conditioning explains phobias, drug tolerance/overdose, and conditioned fetishism.

Section 6.2: Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, such as rewards and punishments. B.F. Skinner and Edward Thorndike contributed key concepts.

• Operant vs. Classical Conditioning: Operant involves voluntary behaviors and consequences; classical involves involuntary responses to stimuli.

• Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated.

• Reinforcement: Increases behavior. Positive: Adding a pleasant stimulus. Negative: Removing an unpleasant stimulus.

• Punishment: Decreases behavior. Positive: Adding an unpleasant stimulus. Negative: Removing a pleasant stimulus.

• Schedules of Reinforcement:

  • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

  • Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.

  • Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time period.

  • Variable Interval: Reinforcement after variable time intervals.

• Shaping: Gradually reinforcing closer approximations to the desired behavior.

• Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers: Primary are inherently rewarding (e.g., food); secondary are learned (e.g., money).

• Two-Process Theory: Combines classical and operant conditioning in explaining avoidance learning.

Section 6.3: Cognitive Models of Learning

Cognitive models emphasize internal mental processes in learning, such as expectations and understanding.

• S-O-R Psychology: Stimulus-Organism-Response; considers organism’s interpretation.

• Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately expressed. Tolman and Honzik’s maze trials showed rats learned the layout without reinforcement.

• Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of spatial layouts. Tolman’s starburst maze study illustrated this.

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others. Bandura’s bobo doll experiments showed children imitate aggression.

• Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire when observing or performing an action, facilitating observational learning.

Section 6.4: Biological Influences on Learning

Biological factors can make certain types of learning easier or harder.

• Biological Preparedness: Some phobias and aversions are easier to learn due to evolutionary factors.

• Conditioned Taste Aversion: Strong aversion to tastes associated with illness; differs from other classical conditioning by requiring only one pairing and having long delay.

• Instinctive Drift: Tendency for animals to revert to instinctual behaviors despite conditioning.

Section 6.5: Enhanced Learning Techniques

Various methods claim to enhance learning, but scientific evidence varies.

• Sleep-Assisted Learning: Claims to improve learning during sleep; research is critical of effectiveness.

• Learning Styles: The idea that individuals learn best in specific ways (e.g., visual, auditory); scientific research finds little evidence for improved learning when teaching matches style.

Chapter 7: Memory

Section 7.1: Memory Systems

Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. It is structured into different systems.

• Three Types of Memory: Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

• Paradox of Memory: Memory can be both reliable and prone to errors.

• Reconstructive Nature: Memories are not exact copies; they are reconstructed.

• Hyperthymestic Syndrome: Exceptionally detailed autobiographical memory.

• Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information. Types include iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory).

• Capacity and Duration: Sensory memory is large but lasts milliseconds to seconds.

• Sperling’s (1960) Research: Demonstrated the brief duration of iconic memory.

• Short-Term Memory: Holds information temporarily; capacity is about 7 ± 2 items, duration is about 20 seconds.

• Working Memory: Short-term memory used for manipulation of information.

• Interference: New or old information disrupts memory.

• Decay: Fading of memory over time.

• Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units. Example: Phone numbers.

• Maintenance vs. Elaborative Rehearsal: Maintenance is simple repetition; elaborative involves deeper processing.

• Serial Position Effect: Tendency to recall first (primacy) and last (recency) items best.

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information for extended periods.

• Explicit LTM: Conscious recall; includes semantic (facts) and episodic (events) memory.

• Implicit LTM: Unconscious recall; includes procedural (skills), priming, conditioning, and habituation.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Type	Subtypes	Example
Explicit (Declarative)	Semantic, Episodic	Remembering facts, personal events
Implicit (Non-declarative)	Procedural, Priming, Conditioning, Habituation	Riding a bike, word completion, salivating to bell, ignoring repeated sound

Section 7.2: Memory Processes

Memory involves three major processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

• Encoding: Transforming information into a form that can be stored. Attention is crucial (next-in-line effect).

• Mnemonics: Strategies to enhance memory. Types include method of loci (visualizing locations), acronyms, and rhymes.

• Schema: Organized knowledge structure. Example: Restaurant schema.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information. Cues are important (Mantyla, 1986).

• Distributed vs. Massed Practice: Spacing study sessions improves retention.

• Encoding Specificity: Memory is best when context matches encoding. Types: Context-dependent (same environment), State-dependent (same mood).

Section 7.3: Biological Bases of Memory

Memory formation involves specific brain structures and processes.

• Engram: Physical trace of memory in the brain.

• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthening of synapses; involves glutamate and hippocampus.

• Hippocampus: Critical for forming new memories.

• Amnesia: Anterograde (inability to form new memories), Retrograde (loss of past memories).

• Emotional Memories: Involve amygdala and other limbic structures.

• Memory Deterioration: Begins in late adulthood.

• Alzheimer’s Disease: Affects hippocampus and cortex.

Section 7.4: Development of Memory

Memory abilities develop throughout childhood.

• Children’s Memory: Span, understanding, and meta-memory improve with age.

• Infantile Amnesia: Inability to recall early childhood events; possible causes include brain immaturity.

Section 7.5: Memory Errors and False Memories

Memory is susceptible to errors and distortions.

• False Memories: Can arise from suggestion, imagination, or misleading information.

• Flashbulb Memory: Vivid, detailed memory of emotionally significant events.

• Misleading Post-Event Information (MPI): Information after an event can alter recall. Example: Loftus and Palmer’s car crash study.

• Eyewitness Testimony: Can be unreliable due to memory errors.

• Cognitive Interview: Technique to improve recall by reinstating context.

• Ways to Study: Distributed practice, elaborative rehearsal, self-testing, mnemonics, and organization.

Chapter 11: Emotion and Motivation

Section 11.1: Theories of Emotion

Emotion is a complex psychological state involving subjective experience, physiological response, and behavioral expression.

• Discrete Emotions Theory: Emotions are distinct and biologically based.

• Paul Ekman’s Work: Identified universal facial expressions for seven primary emotions.

• Primary Emotions: Happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, contempt.

• Secondary Emotions: Combinations of primary emotions.

• Display Rules: Cultural norms for expressing emotions.

• Cognitive Theories of Emotion: Includes James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor), and appraisal theories.

• Unconscious Influences: Emotions can be influenced by factors outside awareness.

• Proxemics: Study of personal space. Four levels: intimate, personal, social, public.

Section 11.2: Nonverbal Expression of Emotion

Humans communicate emotions through facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice.

• Importance: Nonverbal cues are crucial for social interaction.

• Lie Detection: Humans are generally poor at detecting deception.

Section 11.3: Positive Psychology and Happiness

Positive psychology focuses on strengths and well-being.

• Defensive Pessimism: Setting low expectations to manage anxiety.

• Broaden and Build Theory: Positive emotions expand thinking and build resources.

• Myths about Happiness: Money, youth, and weather are not strong predictors.

• Affective Forecasting: Humans are poor at predicting future emotional states.

Section 11.4: Theories of Motivation

Motivation drives behavior toward goals.

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization.

• Factors Impacting Weight: Biological (genetics, hormones) and environmental (diet, activity).

• Sexual Arousal Cycle: Phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.

• Sexual Orientation: Influenced by both biological and environmental factors.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Level	Description
Physiological	Basic survival needs (food, water)
Safety	Security, stability
Love/Belonging	Relationships, affection
Esteem	Self-respect, achievement
Self-Actualization	Personal growth, fulfillment

Section 11.5: Attraction and Love

Attraction and love are influenced by multiple factors.

• Factors Influencing Attraction: Proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness.

• Opposites Attract: Generally, similarity is more important for attraction.

• Averageness: Faces with average features are perceived as more attractive.

• Sternberg’s Types of Love: Intimacy, passion, commitment.