Psychological Disorders and Therapy: Study Guide for General Psychology

Psychological Disorders

Defining Psychological Disorders

Psychological disorders are patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that are deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional. Understanding the distinction between normal experiences and disorders is essential for accurate diagnosis and treatment.

• Psychological disorder: A syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.

• Normal vs. Disordered: Normal stress, sadness, or anxiety are common human experiences, but when these become persistent, severe, and interfere with daily functioning, they may indicate a disorder.

• Example: Occasional sadness is normal, but persistent, pervasive sadness that impairs daily life may indicate major depressive disorder.

Classification of Disorders: DSM-5

The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition) is the primary tool for classifying psychological disorders in the United States.

• Purpose: Provides standardized criteria for diagnosis.

• Criticisms: May lead to overdiagnosis, labeling, and does not explain causes.

• Example: ADHD is classified in the DSM-5 by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

Prevalence of Psychological Disorders

Understanding the prevalence of disorders helps in recognizing their impact on society and the importance of mental health resources.

• Relative prevalence: Some disorders, such as anxiety and depression, are more common than others like schizophrenia.

• Overall prevalence: A significant proportion of adults in the USA experience a mental disorder each year.

• Example: Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent mental health conditions in the United States.

Risk Factors for Psychological Disorders

Multiple factors contribute to the development of psychological disorders, including genetic, environmental, and cognitive influences.

• Genetic risk: Family history increases risk for disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder.

• Environmental risk: Stress, trauma, and adverse life events can trigger or worsen disorders.

• Epigenetic effects: Diet, drugs, and stress can alter gene expression, influencing risk for depression.

• Example: A person with a family history of depression and recent stressful life events is at higher risk for developing depression.

Learning, Conditioning, and Anxiety

Learning processes, such as conditioning, play a role in the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders.

• Classical conditioning: Anxiety can be learned by associating a neutral stimulus with a frightening event.

• Operant conditioning: Avoidant behaviors are reinforced because they reduce anxiety in the short term.

• Example: A child bitten by a dog may develop a phobia of dogs through classical conditioning.

Maladaptive Cognitions and Depression

Negative thought patterns, or maladaptive cognitions, can perpetuate depression.

• Pessimistic explanatory style: Attributing negative events to internal, stable, and global causes increases risk for depression.

• Rumination: Compulsive overthinking about problems and their causes can worsen depressive symptoms.

• Example: Believing "I always fail because I'm worthless" is a maladaptive cognition linked to depression.

Suicide and Self-Harm

Understanding risk factors and prevention strategies for suicide is critical in mental health care.

• Greatest risk: When individuals begin to rebound from depression.

• Lethal means: Reducing access to lethal means (e.g., firearms, medications) is a key prevention strategy.

• Gender differences: Males are more likely to die by suicide, while females are more likely to attempt it.

• Helping a friend: Listen, express concern, encourage seeking help, and do not leave the person alone if risk is imminent.

Major Psychological Disorders

Anxiety Disorders

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Persistent, excessive worry and autonomic arousal.

• Panic Disorder: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and actions (compulsions).

• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Intrusive memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, and hyperarousal following trauma.

Mood Disorders

• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): Persistent sadness, loss of interest, changes in sleep/appetite, pessimistic thinking.

• Bipolar Disorder: Alternating periods of depression and mania (elevated mood, energy, impulsivity).

• Mania: A state of abnormally elevated mood and energy.

Schizophrenia

• Symptoms: Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, flat affect (lack of emotional expression).

• Delusions: False beliefs not based in reality.

Personality and Eating Disorders

• Personality Disorders: Enduring patterns of behavior that impair social functioning.

• Anorexia Nervosa: Restriction of food intake, intense fear of gaining weight.

• Bulimia Nervosa: Binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors (e.g., vomiting).

• Binge Eating Disorder: Recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food without compensatory behaviors.

Treatment of Psychological Disorders

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy involves psychological techniques to help individuals overcome difficulties or achieve personal growth.

• Eclectic approach: Integrates techniques from various forms of therapy.

• Therapeutic alliance: The bond and trust between therapist and client, crucial for effective therapy.

• When to seek help: When symptoms are severe, persistent, or interfere with daily life.

Major Types of Psychotherapy

• Psychoanalysis: Uses techniques like free association and transference to uncover unconscious conflicts.

• Psychodynamic Therapy: Focuses on unconscious processes and past experiences.

• Client-Centered Therapy: Emphasizes active listening and unconditional positive regard.

• Behavior Therapy: Uses learning principles to change maladaptive behaviors (e.g., bed-wetting treatment with alarms).

• Counterconditioning: Includes exposure therapy and aversive conditioning to replace unwanted responses.

• Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure to anxiety triggers paired with relaxation training.

• Token Economy: Uses rewards (e.g., stickers) to reinforce desirable behaviors.

• Cognitive Therapy: Focuses on changing negative thought patterns.

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Integrates cognitive and behavioral techniques to modify thoughts and actions.

• Group and Family Therapy: Provides support, improves communication, and addresses relational issues.

Biomedical Therapies

Biomedical therapies involve medications or medical procedures that act directly on the nervous system.

• Medication: Antidepressants, mood stabilizers (e.g., lithium), antipsychotics, and anxiolytics treat various disorders.

• Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS): Uses magnetic pulses to stimulate brain regions.

• Psychosurgery: Involves removing or destroying brain tissue (rarely used today).

Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes

Lifestyle modifications can support mental health and enhance the effectiveness of other treatments.

• Examples: Regular exercise, healthy diet, adequate sleep, social connection, and stress management.

Key Vocabulary Table

Term	Definition
Suicide	Greatest risk when individuals rebound from depression; prevention includes reducing access to lethal means.
Free Association	Psychoanalytic technique involving spontaneous expression of thoughts.
Epigenetic Effects	Environmental factors (diet, drugs, stress) that alter gene expression.
DSM-5	Manual for classifying psychological disorders.
ADHD		Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity.
GAD	Continuous state of tension and autonomic arousal.
Active Listening	Key feature of client-centered therapy.
Flat Affect	Lack of emotional expression, seen in schizophrenia.
PTSD	Intrusive memories, nightmares, social withdrawal after trauma.
MDD	Persistent sadness, pessimism, sleep/appetite changes.
Lithium	Mood stabilizer for bipolar disorder.
Rumination	Compulsive overthinking about problems.
Anorexia Nervosa	Fear of gaining weight, food restriction.
Binge Eating Disorder	Episodes of excessive food intake without purging.
Psychotherapy	Treatment using psychological techniques.
Biomedical Therapy	Medications or procedures acting on physiology.
Eclectic Approach	Combining techniques from different therapies.
Transference	Redirecting feelings from one person to another in therapy.
Systematic Desensitization	Gradual exposure to anxiety triggers with relaxation.
Token Economy	Reward system for reinforcing behaviors.
CBT	Modifies thoughts and behaviors.
Therapeutic Alliance	Trusting relationship between therapist and client.
rTMS	Magnetic stimulation of brain regions.
Psychosurgery	Destruction of brain tissue to treat disorders.

Summary Table: Types of Therapy

Therapy Type	Main Features	Example
Psychoanalysis	Uncover unconscious conflicts	Free association, transference
Client-Centered	Active listening, empathy	Therapist reflects client's feelings
Behavior Therapy	Change behaviors via conditioning	Bed-wetting alarm, token economy
Cognitive Therapy	Change negative thoughts	Challenge pessimistic beliefs
CBT	Integrate cognitive and behavioral techniques	Modify thoughts and actions
Biomedical Therapy	Medications, brain stimulation	Antidepressants, rTMS

Additional info: Academic context and examples have been added to clarify and expand upon the brief points in the original study guide. Tables have been constructed to summarize key vocabulary and therapy types for exam preparation.