Psychological Research & Ethics: Study Guide

Psychological Research & Ethics

Critical Thinking in Psychology

Critical thinking is essential in psychology for evaluating claims, making reasoned judgments, and protecting against misinformation. It involves logical, evidence-based analysis and skepticism toward unsupported assertions.

• Definition: Making reasoned judgments about claims using logic and evidence.

• Purpose: To evaluate claims, promote scientific thinking, and encourage skepticism and logical evaluation.

• Criteria for Critical Thinking:

  1. Few truths need no testing: Most claims require empirical evidence and scientific support.

  2. All evidence is not equal: Assess the quality and source of evidence; beware of bias.

  3. Authority ≠ automatic truth: Experts can be wrong; always check evidence and logic.

  4. Open-mindedness: Remain willing to revise beliefs when new evidence arises, but balance with healthy skepticism.

Scientific Approach & Goals of Psychology

The scientific approach in psychology uses systematic methods to reduce bias and errors in observation and data collection. It relies on critical thinking and testable evidence to understand behavior.

• Goals of Psychology:

  1. Description: Observe and describe behavior accurately (who, what, when, where).

  2. Explanation: Develop theories to explain behaviors and underlying causes.

  3. Prediction: Anticipate future behavior based on findings.

  4. Control: Modify behaviors to achieve desired outcomes (e.g., promote equality).

Five Steps of the Scientific Method

The scientific method ensures psychology remains evidence-based, not assumption-based.

1. Perceiving the Question: Identify a curious pattern or phenomenon.

2. Forming a Hypothesis: Make a testable, educated guess about the relationship between variables.

3. Testing the Hypothesis: Collect data through experiments or observation.

4. Drawing Conclusions: Analyze data to support or refute the hypothesis.

5. Reporting Results: Share findings for peer review, replication, and transparency.

Descriptive Methods

Naturalistic Observation vs. Laboratory Observation

Method	Definition	Advantages	Disadvantages	Example
Naturalistic Observation	Observing behavior in a natural environment	Provides realistic picture; high external validity	Observer effect; lack of control	Adolescents in a social setting
Laboratory Observation	Observing behavior in a controlled, artificial environment	Greater control over variables	May lack ecological validity	Toddlers in a playroom with hidden cameras

Case Studies vs. Surveys

Method	Definition	Advantages	Disadvantages	Example
Case Study	In-depth study of one individual or group	Detailed, comprehensive data	Cannot generalize findings	Analysis of a rare psychological disorder
Survey	Collecting information via questions	Gather private/current info; large groups quickly	Sampling bias; inaccurate responses	College students' attitudes on social views

Correlational Research

Correlational research measures the relationship between two or more variables using statistical methods. It does not establish causation but helps predict one variable based on another.

• Correlation Coefficient (r): Indicates strength and direction of relationship. Values range from -1.00 to +1.00.

• Types of Correlation:

  Type	Description	Example
  Positive (+)	Both variables increase/decrease together	IQ & SAT scores
  Negative (-)	One variable increases, other decreases	Exercise & body fat
  Zero	No relationship	Height & shoe size (in adults)

• Correlation ≠ Causation: Correlation does not imply cause-effect; third variables may be involved.

Experimental Research

Steps in Experimental Research

Experimental research determines cause-effect relationships by manipulating one variable and observing changes in another.

1. Select Participants

2. Assign Participants to Groups (random assignment)

3. Measure Dependent Variable

4. Analyze Results

5. Formulate Hypothesis

6. Operationalization

7. Manipulate Independent Variable

8. Control for Confounding Variables

9. Draw Conclusions

Variables, Groups, and Randomization

Concept	Definition
Independent Variable (IV)	Manipulated by researcher (e.g., type of cartoon)
Dependent Variable (DV)	Measured outcome (e.g., aggressive behavior)
Confounding Variables	Any factor that interferes with IV-DV relationship
Operationalization	Defining variables in measurable terms
Experimental Group	Receives IV
Control Group	Receives neutral condition
Random Sampling	Randomly choosing participants
Random Assignment	Randomly placing participants in groups

Experimental Hazards

Placebo Effect

• Definition: Change in behavior due to belief in receiving treatment, not the treatment itself.

• Example: Sugar pill causing improvement due to expectation.

Experimenter Effect

• Definition: Researcher's expectations unintentionally influence participants or outcomes.

• Example: Researcher subtly encourages participants to perform better.

Controlling for Effects: Single-Blind vs. Double-Blind Studies

Study Type	Definition	Controls
Single-Blind	Participants do not know group assignment	Controls placebo effect
Double-Blind	Neither participants nor experimenters know group assignment	Controls both placebo and experimenter effects

Importance: Double-blind studies increase internal validity by ensuring observed effects are due to the independent variable.

Ethical Guidelines

• Weighing Rights: Participants' well-being vs. study value

• Informed Consent: Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision

• Withdrawal: Participants may withdraw at any time

• Protection from Harm: Participants must be protected from risks

• Deception: Only justified when necessary

• Confidentiality: Data must remain confidential

• Debriefing: Researchers must debrief participants after the study

• Responsibility: Researchers are responsible for undesirable consequences

Animal Research Ethics

• Reasons for Animal Research: Some questions can only be ethically or practically answered using animals; animals have shorter lifespans and simpler behaviors.

• Value: Crucial medical advancements and experimental research not feasible on humans.

• Humane Treatment: Avoid unnecessary pain; surgery under anesthesia; euthanasia only if humane.

• Ethical Considerations: Ethical standards apply to animals; only a small percentage of psychological research uses animals.

Sample Exam Questions & Answers

Question	Correct Answer
Which of the following best defines the placebo effect?	C. Improvement due to belief in receiving treatment
Why do psychologists use animals in research?	A. Some studies can only be ethically done on animals
What does a double-blind study help control?	B. Both placebo and experimenter effects
Which of the following is NOT a basic ethical principle in human psychological research?	B. Participants must always be told everything upfront, including deception
Which situation best illustrates a confounding variable?	D. Family background influences aggression, separate from the cartoon shown