Psychological Science & Research Methods: Study Guide

Psychological Science

Five Schools of Psychology

The field of psychology has developed through several major schools of thought, each with distinct approaches to understanding human behavior and mental processes.

• Structuralism: Focuses on analyzing the structure of consciousness using introspection. Founders: Wundt, Titchener. Example: Describing sounds by their quality, loudness, and feelings evoked.

• Functionalism: Examines the purpose or function of mental processes and behavior for adaptation. Inspired by: Darwin. Example: Fear evolved to aid survival (adaptive function).

• Behaviorism: Studies observable behavior only, emphasizing the effects of rewards and punishments. Founders: Watson, Skinner. Example: Rat presses lever for food; reinforcement shapes behavior.

• Psychodynamic: Investigates unconscious drives and repressed childhood conflicts. Founder: Freud. Example: Therapist helps patient uncover repressed memories influencing current anxiety.

• Cognitivism: Focuses on mental processes like thinking, memory, decision-making. Founders: Piaget, Miller. Example: Child problem-solving changes as the brain develops; brain as information processor.

Matching Examples from Lecture Scenarios

• Structuralism: Describe sounds → quality, loudness, feelings + introspection

• Cognitivism: Child problem-solving changes → brain as information processor → mental processes

• Psychodynamic: Therapist explores repressed childhood memories → Freud

• Functionalism: Fear evolved to aid survival → adaptive function

• Behaviorism: Rat presses lever for food → reinforcement shapes behavior

Research Methods

Types of Relationships

Understanding the relationship between variables is central to psychological research. Relationships can be classified as follows:

• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together (e.g., time spent studying & exam score).

• Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

• Zero Correlation: No relationship (e.g., shoe size & exam score).

• Curvilinear Relationship: Relationship increases then decreases (e.g., number of tennis balls & dog happiness—"diminishing returns").

Research Designs

Psychological research uses several key designs to investigate questions about behavior and mental processes.

Method	Definition	Purpose / Example
Naturalistic Observation	Observe behavior in natural setting without interference	Watching door-holding on campus; kids at recess
Case Study	Intensive study of one person / small group	Brain-injury patient; historical cases
Survey / Self-Report	Questionnaires/interviews about attitudes/beliefs	Public opinion on climate change
Correlational Design	Examines relationships between variables	Attendance vs grades; does not imply causation
Experimental Design	Manipulate independent variable (IV) to determine cause/effect on dependent variable (DV)	Testing if lecture attendance causes better exam scores

Correlation ≠ Causation: Only experiments can show cause-and-effect because they manipulate variables and use random assignment.

Design Activities (Class Examples)

• "Love Is Blind" Example: Research Question: Can people fall in love without seeing each other? IV: Visual access (see partner vs not see partner) DV: Relationship outcomes / marriage decision / self-reported closeness Design note: Must manipulate IV and measure DV to qualify as an experiment.

• "Squid Game" Example: Explores how media uses "social experiment" loosely; real experiments require controlled conditions and ethical consent.

Identifying the Design from Scenarios

Scenario	Correct Method
Observing children at recess	Naturalistic Observation
Tracking one brain-injury patient over time	Case Study
Watching phone use in cafés	Naturalistic Observation
Online questionnaire on climate change beliefs	Survey / Self-Report

Core Definitions for Short Answers

• Operational Definition: Specifies exactly how a variable is measured or manipulated in a study.

• Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

• Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome that is measured to assess the effect of the IV.

• Confound: An extraneous variable that could influence the DV, making it difficult to interpret results.

How to Differentiate Key Methods

• Naturalistic Observation: Watch only; no interference.

• Case Study: In-depth on one subject.

• Survey: Ask people directly.

• Correlational: Measure two variables to see if related.

• Experimental: Actively change something; see effect.

Study Strategy for the Exam

• Focus on lecture content only.

• Review each topic’s core definitions and examples.

• Know the five schools well and their key differences.

• Understand research method terms (IV, DV, confounds, types).

• Practice writing short answers: Apply a concept to a new example.

• Don’t memorize iClicker questions; focus on concepts.

• Apply concepts creatively: Reality-show examples mirror exam application style.

Summary Checklist (before Oct 21)

• 5 schools of psychology + key founders and concepts

• Correlation types (+ / – / zero / curvilinear)

• Identify research method from scenario

• IV vs DV vs confound

• Experiment vs correlational study

• Ethical considerations (basic awareness)

• Short answer practice (define + apply)

Sample Questions & Applications

Example Multiple Choice Questions

• Hindsight Bias: Believing you "knew it all along" after learning the outcome.

• Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions.

• Experimental Design: Used when testing if one variable causes changes in another (e.g., lecture attendance causes better exam performance).

• Correlational Design: Used when examining if two variables are related (e.g., lecture attendance is related to exam performance).

Equations & Formulas

• Correlation Coefficient: Measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. $r = \frac{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})(y_i - \bar{y})}{\sqrt{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})^2 \sum (y_i - \bar{y})^2}}$

• Experimental Design: Manipulate IV, measure DV. $\text{Effect} = \text{DV}_{\text{experimental}} - \text{DV}_{\text{control}}$

Additional info: Some context and examples were inferred from standard introductory psychology curriculum and the provided images.