Psychology 104 Study Guide: Learning and Memory

Chapter 6: Learning

General Overview

Learning in psychology refers to a change in an organism’s actions, thoughts, or emotions as a result of experience. It is a process by which we respond less strongly over time to repeated stimuli (habituation).

• Habituation: Decreased response to repeated exposure to a stimulus.

• Classical Conditioning: Learning through association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

• Operant Conditioning: Learning controlled by the consequences of behavior.

6.1 Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, first described by Ivan Pavlov, is a form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic response to the UCS.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, elicits a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS.

Acquisition: The process of gradually learning the conditioned response.

Extinction: The reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery: The sudden reemergence of a conditioned response after a delay following extinction.

Stimulus Generalization: The process by which similar stimuli to the CS elicit a CR.

Stimulus Discrimination: The process by which organisms display a less pronounced CR to CSs that differ from the original CS.

6.2 Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is learning controlled by the consequences of the organism’s behavior. B.F. Skinner expanded on Thorndike’s law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

• Reinforcement: Any outcome that strengthens the probability of a response.

• Punishment: Any outcome that weakens the probability of a response.

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., giving a treat).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing a stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., turning off a loud noise).

• Positive Punishment: Adding a stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., scolding).

• Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away a toy).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Patterns of delivering reinforcers can be fixed or variable, and based on intervals (time) or ratios (number of responses).

Schedule	Description	Example
Fixed Ratio (FR)	Reinforcement after a set number of responses	Every 10th response is rewarded
Variable Ratio (VR)	Reinforcement after a variable number of responses	Slot machines
Fixed Interval (FI)	Reinforcement after a set amount of time	Weekly paycheck
Variable Interval (VI)	Reinforcement after a variable amount of time	Pop quizzes

Shaping: Gradually reinforcing behaviors that come closer to the target behavior.

Primary Reinforcers: Innately reinforcing (e.g., food, water).

Secondary Reinforcers: Associated with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, tokens).

6.3 Cognitive Models of Learning

Cognitive models emphasize the role of mental processes in learning, such as expectations and interpretations.

• Latent Learning: Learning that is not directly observable.

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others (modeling).

• Insight Learning: Sudden understanding of a problem’s solution.

Example: Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children can learn aggressive behaviors by observing adults.

6.4 Conditioned Taste Aversion

Conditioned taste aversion occurs when an animal associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance. This form of learning is unique because it can occur after only one pairing and with a long delay between the CS and UCS.

• Evolutionary Explanation: Helps animals avoid poisonous foods.

• Applications: Used in cancer treatment to help patients avoid developing aversions to all foods.

Biological Preparedness: Some associations are learned more easily due to evolutionary factors.

Chapter 7: Memory

Definition and Overview

Memory is the retention of information over time. It involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

• Encoding: Getting information into memory.

• Storage: Keeping information in memory.

• Retrieval: Reconstructing or recalling information from memory.

Key Points on Memory’s Accuracy and Capacity

• Exceptional Memory: Some individuals, such as savants, can recall vast amounts of information.

• Reconstructive Nature: Memory is reconstructive, not reproductive; we rebuild memories using cues and information available to us.

The Three-Memory Model (Atkinson-Shiffrin Model)

This model divides memory into three major systems based on span (capacity) and duration (how long they hold information):

• Sensory Memory: Brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term memory.

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Retains information for limited durations (about 10-15 seconds without rehearsal).

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Enduring retention of information, potentially for years.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Type	Definition	Example
Semantic Memory	Memory for facts and general knowledge	Knowing that Paris is the capital of France
Episodic Memory	Memory for specific events in one’s life	Remembering your 18th birthday party
Procedural Memory	Memory for skills and habits	Riding a bike
Priming	Ability to identify a stimulus more easily after encountering it before	Recognizing the word “STEM” after seeing it earlier

Encoding and Retrieval

• Encoding: The process of getting information into memory. Attention is crucial for effective encoding.

• Retrieval: The process of reactivating or reconstructing information from memory.

• Mnemonics: Memory aids that help encode information more effectively (e.g., using imagery or acronyms).

Memory Errors and Schemas

Schemas are organized knowledge structures or mental models that help us interpret and store information. However, they can also lead to memory errors by causing us to remember things that fit our expectations rather than what actually happened.

• Example: People may recall seeing books in an office when none were present, due to the schema of what an office typically contains.

Biological Bases of Memory

• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation.

• Hippocampus: Plays a key role in forming new memories.

• Amygdala: Involved in emotional memories.

Example: Research shows that LTP in the hippocampus is essential for learning and memory formation.

Summary

• Learning and memory are central topics in psychology, involving complex interactions between behavior, cognition, and biology.

• Classical and operant conditioning explain how organisms learn from their environment, while cognitive models highlight the importance of mental processes.

• Memory involves multiple systems and processes, each with unique characteristics and limitations.