Psychology Exam 2 Study Guide: Human Development, Sensation & Perception, and Consciousness

Additional info: Some explanations and examples have been expanded for academic completeness and clarity.Chapter 9: Human Development

Developmental Norms

Developmental norms refer to the average ages at which individuals reach specific developmental milestones. These norms help psychologists and educators assess whether a child's development is typical or may require intervention.

• Definition: Standardized benchmarks for physical, cognitive, and social development.

• Example: Most children begin walking independently between 9 and 15 months.

Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget) & Socioemotional Development Theory (Erikson)

Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson proposed influential theories describing how children develop cognitively and socioemotionally across stages.

• Piaget's Stages:

  • Sensorimotor (birth-2 yrs): Learning through senses and actions.

  • Preoperational (2-7 yrs): Symbolic thinking, egocentrism.

  • Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs): Logical thinking about concrete events.

  • Formal Operational (12+ yrs): Abstract reasoning.

• Erikson's Stages:

  • Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy)

  • Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (toddlerhood)

  • Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool)

  • Industry vs. Inferiority (school age)

  • Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence)

  • Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)

  • Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)

  • Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

• Key Characteristics: Each stage is marked by specific challenges and developmental tasks.

Attachment Patterns and Major Theories

Attachment refers to the emotional bond between a child and caregiver, influencing social and emotional development.

• Major Patterns: Secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, disorganized.

• Theories: Bowlby's attachment theory emphasizes the importance of early relationships for later development.

• Example: Securely attached children show distress when separated but are easily comforted upon reunion.

Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception

Structures of the Eye

The human eye is a complex organ responsible for detecting light and enabling vision.

• Key Structures: Cornea, lens, retina, iris, pupil, optic nerve.

• Function: Each structure plays a role in focusing light and transmitting visual information to the brain.

Properties of Light

Light is the physical stimulus for vision, characterized by several properties.

• Wavelength: Determines color.

• Amplitude: Determines brightness.

• Purity: Influences saturation.

Major Theories of Color Perception

Color perception is explained by two main theories.

• Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue.

• Opponent-Process Theory: Color is perceived through opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing

These terms describe how sensory information is interpreted.

• Bottom-Up Processing: Analysis begins with sensory input and builds up to perception.

• Top-Down Processing: Perception is guided by prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences.

• Example: Reading a word by recognizing individual letters (bottom-up) vs. using context to guess the word (top-down).

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology focuses on how people naturally organize sensory information into meaningful wholes.

• Principles: Proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, figure-ground.

• Example: Seeing a series of dots as a line due to proximity.

Structures of the Ear

The ear is responsible for detecting sound and maintaining balance.

• Key Structures: Outer ear (pinna, ear canal), middle ear (ossicles), inner ear (cochlea, semicircular canals).

• Function: Transduction of sound waves into neural signals.

Major Theories of Auditory Perception

Auditory perception is explained by several theories.

• Place Theory: Different frequencies stimulate different places on the basilar membrane.

• Frequency Theory: The rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of the sound.

Sense of Smell vs. Other Senses

Olfaction (smell) differs from other senses in its direct connection to brain regions involved in emotion and memory.

• Unique Pathway: Olfactory signals bypass the thalamus and go directly to the olfactory bulb.

• Example: Smells can trigger vivid memories more readily than sights or sounds.

Chapter 5: Variations in Consciousness

Circadian Rhythm and the Biological Clock

The circadian rhythm is a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours.

• Biological Clock: Located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus.

• Function: Controls patterns of alertness, sleep, hormone release, and body temperature.

Sleep Stages and Characteristics

Sleep is divided into several stages, each with distinct physiological features.

• NREM Sleep: Stages 1-3, characterized by slower brain waves and reduced muscle activity.

• REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement, vivid dreaming, increased brain activity.

• Sleep Cycle: A typical cycle lasts about 90 minutes and repeats throughout the night.

Major Theories of Dreaming

Dreaming has been explained by several psychological theories.

• Freud's Theory: Dreams are expressions of unconscious desires.

• Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

• Information-Processing Theory: Dreams help process and consolidate memories.

Major Theories of Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a state of focused attention and increased suggestibility.

• Dissociation Theory: Hypnosis causes a split in consciousness.

• Social-Cognitive Theory: Hypnotic behaviors result from social expectations and role-playing.

• Applications: Pain management, treatment of psychological disorders.