Psychology I – Complete Master Review (All Content)

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Introducing Psychological Science

Definition and Scope

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It is grounded in empirical research and critical thinking, aiming to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases. Psychology integrates biological, psychological, and social influences on behavior.

Empiricism: Knowledge comes from observation and experience.
Determinism: Behavior has causes that can be discovered through research.
Critical Thinking: Involves curiosity, skepticism, and evaluating evidence.

Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research

The Scientific Method in Psychology

Psychological research follows a systematic process:

Formulate a theory
Develop a hypothesis
Test the hypothesis (collect data)
Analyze data and draw conclusions
Revise theory or hypothesis as needed

Hypothesis: A testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measured.

Falsifiability: The hypothesis must be precise enough to be disproven.

Replication: The process of repeating a study to confirm findings.

Variables and Measurement

Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome.
Operational Definitions: Specific procedures for measuring variables.

Types of Research Methods

Descriptive Research: Observing and measuring behavior without manipulating variables (e.g., case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys).
Correlational Research: Examines relationships between variables but does not establish causation.
Experimental Research: Manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.

Controlling Bias

Participant Bias: Placebo effects, demand characteristics.
Experimenter Bias: Researcher expectations influence results.
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to groups by chance to control for confounding variables.
Blinding: Single-blind and double-blind studies reduce bias.

Descriptive Statistics: Frequency and Distributions

Key Concepts

Frequency: How often a score occurs.
Distributions: Patterns of scores (normal, skewed).

Central Tendency

Measures

Mean: Arithmetic average.
Median: Middle score.
Mode: Most frequent score.

In skewed distributions, the mean is pulled toward the tail, while the median is a better indicator of typical performance.

Inferential Statistics and Hypothesis Testing

Key Concepts

Inferential Statistics: Determine whether results are likely due to chance.
Statistical Significance: Commonly defined as .
Replication: Repeating studies to confirm findings.

Biological Psychology

Neurons and Neural Communication

Neuron: Specialized cell transmitting electrical and chemical signals.
Types of Neurons: Sensory, motor, interneurons.
Action Potential: Rapid change in voltage across a neuron’s membrane.

Action Potential Sequence:

Resting potential: mV
Threshold: mV
Depolarization: Sodium influx
Repolarization: Potassium efflux
Return to resting potential

Neurotransmission and Drug Effects

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers (e.g., dopamine, serotonin, GABA).
Agonists: Enhance neurotransmitter activity.
Antagonists: Block neurotransmitter activity.

The Nervous System

Divisions

Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) systems.
Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic (arousal) and parasympathetic (rest and digest).

The Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream (e.g., pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, pancreas, gonads).
Hypothalamus: Links nervous and endocrine systems.

Brain Structures and Functions

Hindbrain: Medulla (vital functions), pons (sleep, arousal), cerebellum (coordination).
Midbrain: Sensory processing, movement.
Forebrain: Thalamus (sensory relay), hypothalamus (homeostasis), limbic system (emotion, memory), cerebral cortex (complex cognition).

Genetics and Behavior

Genes: Segments of DNA coding for proteins.
Genotype: Genetic makeup.
Phenotype: Observable characteristics.
Heritability: Proportion of variation in phenotype due to genetics.

Evolutionary Psychology

Explains behavior in terms of natural selection and adaptation. Traits may persist because they increase reproductive success.

Brain Research Methods

Lesion Studies: Examining effects of brain damage.
Animal Research: Studying non-human brains.
Neuroimaging: fMRI, PET, EEG for observing brain activity.

Psychology: History, Core Ideas, Approaches, Psychologists, and Exam Examples

Early Schools & History of Psychology

Structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener; focus on structure of consciousness, method: introspection.
Functionalism: William James; focus on purpose of behavior, influenced by Darwin.
Behaviorism: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner; focus on observable behavior, learning through conditioning.

Other Major Schools

Psychoanalytic: Sigmund Freud; unconscious mind, early childhood experiences.
Humanistic: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow; self, personal growth, hierarchy of needs.
Cognitive: Focus on thinking, memory, perception, problem solving.
Gestalt: Whole is greater than sum of parts; principles: figure-ground, proximity, similarity, closure, continuity.

Psychophysics (Sensation & Perception)

Relationship between physical stimuli and perception.
Key figures: Ernst Weber (Just Noticeable Difference), Gustav Fechner, Stanley Stevens (Power Law).

Important Psychologists to Know

Charles Darwin: Natural selection, evolutionary psychology.
Francis Galton: Intelligence, heredity.
Norman Triplett: Social facilitation.

Major Approaches / Types of Psychology

Biological: Brain, neurotransmitters, genetics.
Cognitive: Memory, learning, perception.
Behavioral: Reinforcement, punishment.
Psychoanalytic: Unconscious motives.
Humanistic: Self-actualization, personal growth.
Evolutionary: Survival value of behavior.
Sociocultural: Influence of culture and society.

Types of Psychologists

Clinical
Counseling
Developmental
Experimental
Biological/Neuropsychological
Industrial-organizational

Learning

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov: Associating a neutral stimulus with food.

Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner: Learning through consequences.
Reinforcement: Increases behavior.
Punishment: Decreases behavior.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant.

Sensation and Perception

Key Concepts

Sensation: Detecting external events with sense organs and turning them into neural signals.
Perception: Involves attending to, organizing, and interpreting stimuli.
Transduction: Specialized receptors transform physical energy into neural impulses.
Priming: Previous exposure to a stimulus influences later responses.

Vision

Stimulus: Light waves
Receptors: Rods (light, black and white), cones (color, detail)
Retina: Focuses light onto photoreceptors
Optic nerve: Carries signals to the brain

Hearing

Cochlea: Converts vibrations into neural signals
Auditory nerve: Sends signals to the brain

Perceptual Organization

Gestalt Principles: Figure-ground, proximity, similarity, continuity, closure
Top-down Processing: Using prior knowledge to interpret stimuli
Bottom-up Processing: Building perception from sensory input

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