Psychology Study Guide: Memory and Language (Chapters 7 & 8)

Memory

The Three Processes of Memory

Memory involves three main processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. These processes allow us to take in information, keep it over time, and access it when needed. Memory is reconstructive, meaning it is not a perfect recording of events.

• Encoding: The process of getting information into memory by processing sensory input and assigning meaning. Example: Connecting the term "iconic memory" to the word "icon" (visual image).

• Storage: Maintaining information in memory over time. Example: Remembering your home address for years.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed. Example: Recalling an answer during a test.

Automatic vs Effortful Encoding

Encoding can occur automatically or require effort. Understanding the difference helps optimize study strategies.

• Automatic encoding: Information enters memory without conscious effort. Example: Remembering what you ate for dinner yesterday.

• Effortful encoding: Intentional memorization, often using elaboration and practice. Example: Studying definitions, making flashcards.

The Multi-Store Model of Memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin's model describes three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory. Information moves through these stores, with some forgotten at each stage.

Memory Store	Main Job	Duration	Capacity	Example
Sensory memory	Holds raw sensory impressions	Fractions of a second to a few seconds	Large, fades quickly	Visual image after looking away
Short-term/working memory	Holds and manipulates information	15-30 seconds	5-9 items	Repeating a phone number
Long-term memory	Stores knowledge, experiences, skills	Lifetime	No known limit	Remembering how to swim

Sensory Memory Types

Sensory memory briefly holds information from each sense. Each type has a unique duration and function.

Type	Sense	Duration	Memory Hook
Iconic	Vision	Fraction of a second	Icon = visual image
Echoic	Hearing	2-4 seconds	Echo = sound
Haptic	Touch	2 seconds	Haptic = touch
Gustatory	Taste	1-2 seconds	Gustare = taste
Olfactory	Smell	2-4 seconds	Olfactory = smell

Short-Term Memory vs Working Memory

Short-term memory holds information briefly, while working memory manipulates it. Both are limited in capacity and duration.

Component	Function	Example
Phonological loop	Holds/repeats auditory info	Remembering what someone said
Visuo-spatial sketchpad	Holds visual/spatial info	Recalling a dog's appearance
Episodic buffer	Integrates info from multiple sources	Recognizing a dog and its name
Central executive	Directs attention, controls access	Focusing on a lecture

Working Memory Limits and Study Strategies

Working memory can hold about 5-9 items for 15-30 seconds. Strategies like chunking and rehearsal help overcome these limits.

• Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units. Example: [phone].

• Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it active. Example: Repeating a phone number.

• Elaborative rehearsal: Connecting information to meaning or prior knowledge for long-term retention. Example: Linking semantic memory to trivia facts.

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory stores information for extended periods and is divided into explicit and implicit types.

Category	Type	Meaning	Example
Explicit	Semantic	Facts, general knowledge	Paris is the capital of France
Explicit	Episodic	Personal life events	High school graduation
Implicit	Procedural	How to do tasks	Swimming, typing
Implicit	Conditioning	Learned associations	Dog salivating to bell
Implicit	Priming	Past exposure influences response	"Eggs" primes "bacon"

Serial Position Effects

Recall of list items is affected by their position. Early and late items are remembered best.

• Primacy effect: Better recall for early items due to deeper processing.

• Recency effect: Better recall for recent items if recall is immediate.

• Middle items: Often forgotten due to less processing.

The Hippocampus

The hippocampus is crucial for forming and consolidating new long-term memories. Damage can cause anterograde amnesia, preventing new memory formation.

Forgetting

Forgetting is normal and can occur due to decay, interference, or retrieval failure.

Theory/Problem	Meaning	Example
Trace decay	Memories fade if unused	Forgetting old material
Interference	Competing info blocks recall	Mixing up similar names
Proactive interference	Old info interferes with new	Calling new partner by old name
Retroactive interference	New info interferes with old	Struggling to picture friend without glasses
Tip-of-the-tongue	Temporary retrieval failure	Can't recall actor's name

Amnesia

Amnesia is memory loss, with several types affecting different periods or abilities.

Type	Meaning	Example
Infantile amnesia	Loss for early childhood	Can't remember being a toddler
Retrograde amnesia	Loss for events before injury	Can't recall pre-injury memories
Temporally graded retrograde amnesia	Recent memories lost first	Seen in Alzheimer's
Anterograde amnesia	Can't form new memories	Forgets new events after injury

Language

What Is Language?

Language is an arbitrary, symbolic, rule-governed communication system. It enables people to create and understand meaning.

• Communication system: Exchanges information, thoughts, feelings.

• Symbolic system: Words/signs represent ideas; the link is arbitrary.

• Rule-governed system: Follows rules for sounds, word formation, sentence structure.

• Productive language: Ability to produce language (speaking, writing).

• Receptive language: Ability to understand language (listening, reading).

Features of Language

Language consists of several key features that structure communication.

Feature	Definition	Example
Phoneme	Smallest unit of sound	"Dog" = d-o-g
Morpheme	Smallest unit of meaning	"Dogs" = dog + s
Syntax	Rules for word order	"Grey dog" vs "dog grey"
Extralinguistic information	Non-verbal cues	Tone, facial expression

Theories of Language Acquisition

Three main theories explain how language is acquired.

Theory	Main Idea	Strength	Limitation
Skinner: learning theory	Language learned via reinforcement	Explains social feedback	Too many words/rules for consistent reinforcement
Chomsky: nativist theory	Innate language device, universal grammar	Explains rapid grammar learning	Doesn't explain individual differences/social experience
Interactionist theory	Biological readiness + social experience	Nature + nurture	Requires many interacting factors

Language Development Timeline

Language develops in stages from prenatal recognition to word production.

Stage	Timing	What Develops
Prenatal recognition	Before birth	Fetus recognizes mother's language
Phoneme recognition	First months	Infants learn language sounds
Comprehension	~6 months	Understanding some words
Rapid comprehension growth	~10 months	Understanding increases
First word production	~12 months	Producing actual words

Language and the Brain

Specific brain areas are involved in language production and comprehension.

Area	Location	Main Role	Damage Pattern
Broca's area	Left frontal lobe	Speech/sign production	Can understand, but struggles to produce
Wernicke's area	Left temporal lobe	Language comprehension	Speech incoherent, comprehension impaired
Arcuate fasciculus	Connects Broca's & Wernicke's	Coordinates production & comprehension	Disrupts coordination

Additional info: These areas specialize for sign language in deaf individuals.

Bilingualism

Bilingualism involves speaking two or more languages and affects brain development and cognition.

• Best timing: Earlier exposure supports phoneme learning.

• Mixing languages: Young children may mix languages but separate them by age 3-4.

• Brain differences: Simultaneous bilinguals use similar areas for both languages; later learners may use different parts.

• Childhood benefits: Supports metalinguistic awareness, cognitive flexibility, working memory.

• Late adulthood: May delay Alzheimer's onset by ~5 years.

Reading

Reading is written language comprehension, requiring understanding of print direction, letter-sound correspondence, and meaning.

Technique	Meaning	Example
Whole word recognition	Recognizing words as units	"Stop" on a sign
Phonetic decomposition	Sounding out words	Breaking into syllables
Stroop effect	Automatic reading interferes with naming ink colours	"BLUE" printed in red ink

Quick Compare Tables

Do not confuse	Difference
Encoding vs retrieval	Encoding puts info in memory; retrieval accesses it
Short-term vs working memory	Short-term holds; working manipulates
Maintenance vs elaborative rehearsal	Maintenance repeats; elaborative connects to meaning
Semantic vs episodic memory	Semantic = facts; episodic = experiences
Proactive vs retroactive interference	Proactive = old blocks new; retroactive = new blocks old
Broca's vs Wernicke's area	Broca's = production; Wernicke's = comprehension
Phoneme vs morpheme	Phoneme = sound; morpheme = meaning
Skinner vs Chomsky	Skinner = reinforcement; Chomsky = innate ability

Key Terms and Definitions

• Encoding: Processing information so it can enter memory.

• Storage: Maintaining information in memory over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

• Iconic memory: Visual sensory memory; lasts a fraction of a second.

• Echoic memory: Auditory sensory memory; lasts about 2-4 seconds.

• Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units.

• Elaborative rehearsal: Deeply connecting information to meaning, examples, or prior knowledge.

• Explicit memory: Conscious memory, including semantic and episodic memory.

• Implicit memory: Unconscious memory, including procedural memory, conditioning, and priming.

• Hippocampus: Brain structure important for forming and consolidating new long-term memories.

• Tip-of-the-tongue: Temporary retrieval failure where the answer feels known but unavailable.

• Language: An arbitrary symbolic, rule-governed communication system.

• Phoneme: Smallest unit of sound.

• Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning.

• Syntax: Rules for word order and sentence structure.

• Extralinguistic information: Tone, facial expression, and other cues that affect meaning.

• Broca's area: Language production.

• Wernicke's area: Language comprehension.

• Bilingualism benefit: May support metalinguistic awareness, cognitive flexibility, and working memory; lifelong bilingualism may delay Alzheimer's onset.

• Stroop effect: Automatic reading interferes with naming mismatched ink colours.

One-Page Final Review

Chapter 7: Memory in 8 lines

• Memory has three processes: encoding, storage, retrieval.

• Main stores: sensory, short-term/working, long-term.

• Working memory is limited: about 5-9 items and 15-30 seconds.

• Chunking helps capacity; elaborative rehearsal helps long-term learning.

• Long-term memory includes explicit and implicit memory.

• Primacy and recency explain why list position affects recall.

• Forgetting can happen through decay, interference, or retrieval failure.

• Amnesia includes infantile, retrograde, and anterograde forms.

Chapter 8: Language in 8 lines

• Language is communication + symbols + rules.

• Productive language = producing; receptive language = understanding.

• Phonemes are sounds; morphemes are meanings; syntax is sentence structure.

• Extralinguistic cues include tone and facial expression.

• Skinner = reinforcement; Chomsky = innate language ability; interactionist = both.

• Broca's area supports production; Wernicke's area supports comprehension.

• Earlier bilingual exposure is usually easier and supports phoneme learning.

• Reading becomes automatic, shown by the Stroop effect.

Formulas and Equations

• Working memory capacity: $7 \pm 2$ items

• Duration of short-term memory: $15-30$ seconds