Research Methods in Psychology: Study Guide

Descriptive Research

Overview

Descriptive research aims to answer "what" a phenomenon is by describing its characteristics. It forms the foundation for future research that addresses "why" and "how" questions.

• Purpose: To describe characteristics, behaviors, or conditions as they exist in the population.

• Common designs: Case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, and questionnaires.

Types of Descriptive Research

• Qualitative Research:

  • No numerical measurements.

  • Methods: Interviews, storytelling, photos, creative methods (e.g., Indigenous mental health study with cameras).

  • Example: Interviewing individuals about their experiences with anxiety.

• Quantitative Research:

  • Uses numerical data and statistics.

  • Methods: Surveys, rating scales, structured interviews.

  • Example: Surveys with Likert scales measuring willingness to seek treatment.

• Descriptive Research Can Examine:

  • Behavior: Appearance, frequency, duration, prevalence.

  • Example: Measuring how often 2-year-olds interrupt their parents during homework.

Surveys and Questionnaires

• Self-reporting method: Participants provide responses directly.

• Useful for attitudes, opinions, beliefs, abilities.

• Must avoid biased questions; use indirect measures for sensitive topics (e.g., depression).

• Validity: Compare clinical diagnosis or pretesting with large samples to establish norms.

• Ensures reliability and usefulness of self-report measures.

Case Studies

Overview

Case studies involve an in-depth study of a single individual or unique case, focusing on rare characteristics, unusual experiences, or neurological/psychological conditions.

• Purpose: To document rare phenomena in detail, test or refine theories, generate hypotheses, and support simulations.

• Strengths: Provides detailed data not possible in group studies.

• Limitations: Findings may not generalize; small sample size increases risk of anecdotal evidence.

Famous Example: Phineas Gage

• Iron rod passed through frontal lobes; survived.

• Resulted in lasting personality/behavior changes (impulsivity, poor social control).

• Provided insights into frontal lobe function, emotional regulation, and decision-making.

Correlational Research

Overview

Correlational research measures the association between two or more variables, without manipulating them.

• Examples: Education level vs. income; sleep vs. irritability.

Characteristics of Correlations

• Direction: Positive (both increase/decrease together) or negative (one increases, other decreases).

• Magnitude: Strength of relationship ($r = 0$ = none, $r = 1$ = perfect).

• Important: Correlation ≠ causation.

• Third-variable problem: An unmeasured variable may cause the observed correlation.

• Illusory correlations: Perceived relationships that do not exist in reality (e.g., full moon and crime).

Poor Research & Biases

Characteristics of Poor Research

1. Untestable hypotheses: Must be falsifiable to be scientific.

   • Falsifiable: Can be proven false by observation (e.g., "Chimpanzees cannot recognize themselves in a mirror").

   • Non-falsifiable: Cannot be disproved (e.g., "There is intelligent life on other planets").

2. Anecdotal evidence: Personal stories without scientific validation are unreliable.

3. Data selection bias: Cherry-picking studies to support a view.

4. Appeal to authority: Expert opinion without evidence is not reliable.

5. Appeal to tradition/novelty: Cannot substitute for empirical testing.

Experimental Research

Overview

Experimental research is the only design that can establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Key Elements

1. Independent variable (IV): Manipulated by the researcher (e.g., nature vs. neutral images).

2. Dependent variable (DV): Measured outcome (e.g., stress levels).

3. Random assignment: Assign participants equally to groups to control confounds.

4. Experimental control: Researcher manages variables to isolate IV effect.

5. Experimental vs. Control group:

   • Experimental: Receives treatment/stimuli.

   • Control: Baseline, no treatment.

Designs

• Between-subjects: Different participants in each group.

  • Pros: Avoids carryover effects.

  • Cons: Group differences may occur by chance.

• Within-subjects: Same participants experience all conditions.

  • Pros: Controls for individual differences.

  • Cons: Order effects, fatigue.

Example: Mindfulness Study (Exercise Mapping)

• IV = meditation

• DV = negative mood

• Confound = time

• Experimental group = meditation participants

• Control group = no meditation

• Random assignment = coin flip

• Design = between-subjects

Quasi-Experimental Research

Overview

Quasi-experimental research compares pre-existing groups without random assignment.

• Limitation: Cannot claim causation; more like correlational research.

• Example: Comparing men vs. women—differences may be due to other factors (genetics, upbringing, culture).

Converging Operations

Overview

Using multiple methods to study a phenomenon increases confidence in findings. When a theory holds across many methods, results are more trustworthy.

• Naturalistic observation: Realistic but uncontrolled.

• Experiment: Controlled but artificial.