Skilled Performance and Information Processing: Study Notes for Psychology Students

Skilled Performance and Information Processing

Introduction

This unit explores how humans process information to control movement, the differences between skilled and unskilled performers, and the stages of learning. Understanding these concepts is essential for analyzing skill acquisition and performance in psychology.

Information Processing Models

Basic Information Processing Model

Information processing models describe how sensory input is transformed into motor output through a series of mental operations.

• Input: Information or signals from the environment.

• Processing Mechanisms: Internal cognitive and neural processes that interpret and respond to input.

• Output: Action performed on the environment.

Example: Catching a ball involves seeing the ball (input), deciding how to move your hand (processing), and moving your hand to catch it (output).

Simple Sensorimotor Model

This model breaks down the process into three main stages:

• Sensory Input: Stimuli such as light, sound, touch, smell, and taste.

• Perceptual Processing: Receptors (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, olfactory, gustatory) send information to the central nervous system for data processing.

• Motor Response: The processed information leads to a motor action.

Detailed Information Processing Model

This model adds complexity by including selective attention, decision-making, and feedback mechanisms.

• Perception Mechanism: Stimulus identification and selective attention.

• Decision Mechanism: Response selection based on perceived information.

• Effector Mechanism: Response programming and execution.

• Feedback: Information about the outcome is fed back to earlier stages to refine future actions.

Example: Playing tennis involves perceiving the ball, deciding how to hit it, programming the movement, and adjusting based on feedback from the shot.

Factors Affecting Information Processing

Limited Capacity

Humans can only process a limited amount of information at a time before becoming overloaded.

• Information may be lost or filtered out by the system.

• Processing time for each stage is cumulative and adds to response time.

Example: Trying to listen to multiple conversations at once often leads to missing important details.

Speed-Accuracy Characteristics

There is a trade-off between speed and accuracy in information processing.

• If insufficient time is allowed, accuracy suffers and information may be distorted.

• Performers must choose between speed and accuracy depending on the task.

Example: Typing quickly may lead to more errors, while typing slowly increases accuracy.

Fitts' Law

Fitts' Law predicts the movement time for tasks requiring both speed and accuracy.

• Movement time ($T$) is determined by the distance to the target ($D$) and the size of the target ($W$).

• The formula is:

$T = a + b \log_2 \left( \frac{2D}{W} \right)$

• a and b are constants.

• D is the distance moved.

• W is the target size.

Example: Moving a computer mouse to click a small button takes longer than clicking a large button at the same distance.

Speed/Accuracy and Skilled Performers

Skilled performers process information faster and more accurately than unskilled performers.

• Skilled performers have increased information processing capacity due to experience and long-term memory storage.

• They solve problems more efficiently, often using automatic and unconscious processes (e.g., chunking).

• This is reflected in the autonomous stage of learning.

Example: Experienced typists can type quickly and accurately without consciously thinking about each keystroke.

Response Time

Response time is the sum of the times taken by each mental operation or function.

• Understanding the composite nature of response time helps in improving learning and performance.

Example: In sports, breaking down response time into perception, decision, and action stages can help target specific areas for improvement.

Limiting Principle

It is not possible to determine the reasons for successful or unsuccessful performance solely from the end result.

• Analysis of each stage of the action is necessary to identify where problems occurred.

Example: If a basketball player misses a shot, the error could be in perception, decision-making, or motor execution.

Learning and Skill Acquisition

Definition of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience.

• Implies a change from unskilled to skilled performance.

Example: Accuracy in dart throwing improves with repeated practice, as shown by decreasing mean distance from the target over trials.

Characteristics of Learning

Four key characteristics indicate learning:

• Improvement: Actions become faster and more accurate.

• Consistency: Improvements are repeatable.

• Persistence: Improvements are maintained over time.

• Adaptability: Actions can change based on task or environmental demands.

Example: A swimmer consistently improves lap times, maintains performance over weeks, and adapts technique for different pool conditions.

Stages of Learning

Overview

Skill acquisition occurs in distinct stages, as described by Fitts and Posner and Bernstein.

• Fitts and Posner: Focus on cognitive changes during motor performance.

• Bernstein: Combines motor control and biomechanics.

Stages of Learning (Fitts and Posner)

1) Cognitive Stage

• Understanding the task, making gross errors, and learning strategies.

• Goal identification, performance evaluation, and decision-making are key.

• Rapid gains in proficiency as effective strategies are discovered.

• Information is mainly verbalized (demonstrations, discussions, self-talk).

Example: A beginner learning to ride a bicycle focuses on balancing and pedaling, often making mistakes.

2) Associative Stage

• Connecting stimuli to motor responses and refining performance.

• Focus shifts to organizing effective movement patterns.

• Gross errors drop out; movement efficiency increases.

• Feedback is used to detect and correct errors.

• Inconsistency decreases; movements become more stereotypic or adaptable depending on the skill.

Example: A tennis player refines their serve, using feedback to improve technique.

3) Autonomous Stage

• Performance becomes automatic; speed increases and errors decrease.

• Expert performance is attained.

• Decreased attention required for basic actions allows focus on higher-order cognitive activities.

• Self-confidence increases; error detection and correction become fine-tuned.

Example: An experienced musician plays complex pieces effortlessly while focusing on expression and emotion.

Summary Table: Fitts and Posner's 3 Stages of Motor Learning Model

Stage	Process	Characteristics	Other Name
Cognitive	Gathering information	Large gains, inconsistent performance	Verbal-motor stage
Associative	Putting actions together	Small gains, disjointed performance, conscious effort	Motor stage
Autonomous	Much time and practice	Performance seems unconscious, automatic, and smooth	Automatic stage

Additional info: Bernstein's model is referenced but not detailed in these notes. For further study, consider how biomechanical factors interact with cognitive processes in skill acquisition.