Psychology chapter 13 notes

Social Psychology: Attitudes & Persuasion

Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology is the study of how people influence the behavior, beliefs, and attitudes of others. It explores the mechanisms behind social interactions, group dynamics, and the processes that shape individual and collective behavior.

Attitudes

Definition and Components

• Attitude: Positive or negative evaluations of objects or thoughts.

• Objects of thought can include: people, consumer products, social issues, concepts.

• Attitudes consist of three components:

  • Cognitive: Beliefs or thoughts about the object.

  • Affective: Emotional feelings toward the object.

  • Behavioral: Predispositions to act in certain ways toward the object.

Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?

• The relationship between attitudes and behavior is not always strong; the correlation is often modest.

Predicting Behavior

• Attitudes are more likely to predict behavior when:

  • Attitudes are strong and accessible.

  • Attitudes are specific to the behavior.

  • Situational influences are minimal.

• Self-monitoring: The tendency to regulate behavior to fit social situations. High self-monitors adapt behavior to fit in; low self-monitors act consistently with their attitudes.

Why Might Attitudes Change?

• Attitudes may change when new information is presented or when cognitive dissonance occurs (when attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent).

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: When people experience inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors, they may change their attitudes to reduce discomfort.

Attitude Change: Persuasion

Definition and Process

Persuasion is the process of changing or influencing a person's beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, or behaviors.

• The process of persuasion involves:

  • Source: Credibility, attractiveness, and likability of the communicator.

  • Message: Logic, emotional appeal, and repetition.

  • Channel: Medium through which the message is delivered (e.g., face-to-face, media).

  • Receiver: Personality, expectations, and preexisting attitudes of the audience.

Persuasion Techniques

• Foot-in-the-door: Agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request later.

• Door-in-the-face: Refusing a large request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a smaller request.

• Low-ball: Agreeing to an attractive offer, then the terms are changed to be less favorable.

• That's-not-all: Sweetening a deal by adding extras before the person can respond.

Dual Process Models of Persuasion

• Central route: Careful and thoughtful consideration of the arguments (message content).

• Peripheral route: Influenced by superficial cues such as attractiveness or credibility of the source.

Prejudice & Discrimination

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

• Stereotype: A belief about a group in which identical characteristics are assigned to all members of the group.

• Prejudice: A negative attitude toward a group and its members.

• Discrimination: Negative or harmful action toward a member of a group because of their group membership.

Causes of Prejudice

• In-group/Out-group Bias: Favoring one's own group over others.

• Scapegoat Theory: Blaming out-groups for in-group problems.

• Just-world Hypothesis: Belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Multiculturalism & Prejudice in Society

• Prejudice can be overt (open) or covert (hidden).

• Minority group members may experience stereotype threat, which can affect performance and well-being.

Effects of Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination

• Can lead to psychological distress, lower self-esteem, and symptoms of depression.

• May result in self-fulfilling prophecies, where expectations influence behavior to confirm stereotypes.

Causal Attributions

Definition and Types

• Causal attribution: The process of explaining the behavior of others.

• Types:

  • Dispositional (internal): Attributing behavior to personal traits or abilities.

  • Situational (external): Attributing behavior to external circumstances.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors in explaining others' behavior.

Classic Studies in Social Psychology

Milgram Study

• Examined obedience to authority figures.

• Participants were instructed to administer shocks to a learner for incorrect answers.

• Results: A significant proportion of participants were willing to administer potentially lethal shocks under authority pressure.

Conformity

• People conform to group norms due to real or imagined social pressure.

• Classic studies (e.g., Asch's line experiment) show that individuals may conform even when the group is clearly wrong.

Why Do People Conform?

• Normative social influence: Conforming to avoid rejection or gain social approval.

• Informational social influence: Looking to others for guidance in ambiguous situations.

Deindividuation and Group Behavior

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group settings, leading to increased impulsivity and deviant acts.

• Factors: Anonymity, group size, arousal.

Wartime Atrocities

• Deindividuation and groupthink can contribute to atrocities during war, as individuals feel less personally responsible for their actions.

Social Roles and Behavior

• Social roles are expectations about how particular people are supposed to behave within a specific group or context.

• Classic study: Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated the power of assigned roles in shaping behavior.

Stanford Prison Experiment

• Participants randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards in a simulated prison environment.

• Results: Participants quickly adopted behaviors consistent with their assigned roles, sometimes leading to abusive behavior by guards.

Criticisms

• Ethical concerns regarding participant well-being.

• Debate over the interpretation and generalizability of findings.