Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination: Psychological Perspectives and Consequences

Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Introduction

This unit explores the psychological foundations and consequences of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. These phenomena are central topics in social psychology and are crucial for understanding how individuals and groups interact within society.

Guidelines for Discussion

• Speak as individuals, not as representatives of entire groups.

• Listen with resilience, even to difficult topics.

• Ask questions rather than make attributions about others.

• Respect confidentiality: what is shared stays, what is learned can leave.

• Take care of yourself in this space.

Objectives

• Understand the 'ABCs of Bias'

• Examine psychological perspectives on the origins of prejudice and stereotyping

• Analyze adverse consequences of racism

• Discuss strategies for reducing bias

The 'ABCs' of Bias

Subtypes of Bias

• Affective → Prejudice: Negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their group membership.

• Behavioral → Discrimination: Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

• Cognitive → Stereotype: A generalization about a group of people, where certain traits are assumed to apply to everyone, regardless of actual variation among the members.

Bias is defined as reacting to a person based on their perceived membership in a group, while ignoring all other parts of their identity or personal traits.

Origins of Bias

1. Socialization

Socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of their culture or social group.

• Direct and Indirect Observation: Children observe and imitate attitudes and behaviors of parents and others. Example: Meta-analysis of over 45,000 parent-child dyads found a medium-sized correlation ($r = .38$) between parent attitudes and child attitudes (Degner & Dalege, 2013).

• Nonverbal Signals: Children can "catch" social biases from parents through nonverbal cues (Skinner, Meltzoff & Olson, 2017).

• Norms: Children and adults infer that what is (descriptive norm) reflects what should be (injunctive norm) (Bear & Knobe, 2017).

• Media: Media often places people in stereotypic roles and under-represents certain groups.

• Institutions: Institutionalized racism and segregation (e.g., redlining), representation in government, justice system, and school curricula reinforce bias.

2. Cognition

Cognitive processes contribute to bias through categorization and reliance on mental shortcuts (heuristics).

• Schema Theory & Fast Thinking: Humans tend to categorize information to simplify processing, but this can lead to overgeneralization and stereotyping.

• Social Construction of Categories: Society creates categories (e.g., race) that have stereotypes associated with them.

• Dissociation Model of Prejudice (Devine, 1989):

  • Stereotypes are automatically triggered.

  • Individuals can control whether or not they accept the stereotype, unless distracted or overwhelmed.

  • High prejudice individuals are more likely to stereotype.

3. Motivation

Motivational factors influence the development and expression of bias.

• Realistic Group Conflict Theory: Active or perceived competition for resources or goals leads to conflict and bias.

• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel): People's self-esteem is partly derived from their group memberships, leading to in-group bias. Example: Minimal groups paradigm studies show that even arbitrary group distinctions can produce bias.

Consequences of Bias

Bias affects how people perceive the world, influencing their feelings, thoughts, and actions.

Consequences for Thinking

• Stereotype Activation and Judgment: When stereotypes are activated, especially at low points in circadian rhythm, individuals are more likely to rely on stereotypes in making judgments (Bodenhausen, 1990).

Condition	Tested in Morning	Tested in Afternoon/Evening
Stereotype Activated	Higher perceived guilt	Higher perceived guilt
Not Activated	Lower perceived guilt	Lower perceived guilt

Consequences for Behavior

• Shooter Bias (Correll et al., 2002): Participants were more likely to make errors in a simulated shooting task based on the race of the target.

  • Armed errors (Miss): Not shooting when there was a gun—missed White individuals more often than Black individuals.

  • Unarmed errors (False alarm): Shooting when there was no gun—shot at Black individuals more often than White individuals.

Target Race	Armed Error (Miss)	Unarmed Error (False Alarm)
White	Higher	Lower
Black	Lower	Higher

Consequences for Target

• Exposure to American Indian mascots negatively affected Native students' self-esteem, sense of possible academic selves, and community self-worth (Dr. Stephanie Fryberg).

Reflection

• Consider which findings on the consequences of bias stand out to you and why.

• Reflect on your awareness of bias in daily life and how context (e.g., campus, city, upbringing) influences this awareness.

Additional info: These notes expand on brief points with definitions, examples, and research findings to provide a comprehensive overview suitable for exam preparation in a college-level psychology course.