Test 1 Prep: Core Topics in Introductory Psychology

Topic 1: Psychology as a Science

Major Schools of Thought in Psychology

Psychology has evolved through various schools of thought, each emphasizing different aspects of human behavior and mental processes. Understanding these perspectives helps explain how psychologists approach research and therapy.

• Structuralism: Focuses on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components. Example: A researcher asks participants to describe the quality and feeling of different sounds.

• Cognitive Psychology: Studies how the mind actively processes information, often likened to computer operations. Example: Research on children's problem-solving strategies as they age.

• Psychoanalysis: Emphasizes the influence of unconscious processes and repressed memories on behavior. Example: A therapist helps a patient uncover childhood memories affecting current anxiety.

• Evolutionary Psychology: Investigates how psychological traits may have evolved to solve adaptive problems. Example: Studying why fear exists as a survival mechanism.

• Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behaviors and the role of reinforcement and punishment. Example: A rat is rewarded with food for pressing a lever, demonstrating reinforcement.

Example: Matching research scenarios to the correct school of thought helps clarify their unique approaches.

Topic 2: Research Methods

Overview of Research Methods in Psychology

Psychologists use a variety of research methods to study behavior and mental processes. Each method has strengths and limitations, and the choice depends on the research question.

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference. Example: Watching children during recess and noting their interactions.

• Case Study: In-depth analysis of a single individual or group, often over a long period. Example: Studying the long-term impact of traumatic brain injury on one person.

• Correlational Study: Examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. Example: Observing smartphone use in social settings and its effect on interactions.

• Survey: Collects data from large groups using questionnaires to identify trends. Example: Surveying 1,000 people about climate change attitudes.

• Experiment: Manipulates one variable to determine its effect on another, allowing for causal conclusions. Example: Testing the impact of pizza consumption on productivity.

Internal vs. External Validity:

• Internal Validity: The degree to which an experiment accurately establishes a causal relationship between variables.

• External Validity: The extent to which findings can be generalized to other settings or populations.

Correlations in Psychology

Correlational studies measure the strength and direction of relationships between variables. Correlation does not imply causation.

• Studying & Exam Scores: Positive correlation expected; more studying often leads to higher scores.

• Time Spent with Family & Happiness: Positive correlation; more family time may increase happiness.

• Hours of TV & Physical Fitness: Negative correlation; more TV may be associated with lower fitness.

• Social Media Use & Stress Levels: Positive correlation; increased use may relate to higher stress.

• Sleep & Mood: Positive correlation; better sleep often improves mood.

Formula for Correlation Coefficient:

$r = \frac{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})(y_i - \bar{y})}{\sqrt{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})^2 \sum (y_i - \bar{y})^2}}$

Topic 3: Biological Psychology

Key Brain Structures and Neurotransmitters

Biological psychology explores how brain structures and chemicals influence behavior and mental processes. Understanding these components is essential for linking biology to psychology.

• Medulla: Controls vital autonomic functions such as heart rate and breathing.

• Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement and memory.

• Limbic System: A group of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

• Hippocampus: Critical for forming new memories.

• Dopamine: A neurotransmitter associated with reward, motivation, and motor control.

• Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in decision-making, planning, and impulse control.

Example: "Did you damage my prefrontal cortex? Because I keep making bad decisions when I'm around you."

Language Disorders: Broca's vs. Wernicke's Aphasia

Aphasia is a language disorder resulting from brain damage. The two main types are Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia, each affecting language differently.

• Broca's Aphasia: Characterized by slow, halting speech and difficulty producing language, but comprehension is relatively preserved. Example: "Egg... eat... coffee."

• Wernicke's Aphasia: Characterized by fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Example: Speaking rapidly with incorrect words, unaware of errors.

Feature	Broca's Aphasia	Wernicke's Aphasia
Speech Production	Non-fluent, effortful	Fluent, but nonsensical
Comprehension	Relatively preserved	Impaired
Awareness of Errors	Usually aware	Usually unaware

Topic 4: Sensation & Perception

Attentional Effects in Perception

Sensation and perception involve how we detect and interpret stimuli from the environment. Attention plays a crucial role in determining what information we process.

• Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others. Example: Hearing your name at a crowded party despite not listening to other conversations.

• Goal-Directed Attention: Concentrating on a specific objective, which can cause you to miss other stimuli. Example: Searching for a store in a mall and overlooking new items.

• Change Blindness: Failing to notice changes in the environment due to focused attention elsewhere. Example: Not noticing a moved piece of furniture until it is pointed out.

Example: The cocktail party effect demonstrates selective attention, where personally relevant information (like your name) captures awareness even in noisy environments.

Additional info: Academic context and definitions have been expanded for clarity and completeness.