The Self: Concepts, Perception, Regulation, and Self-Esteem (Psychology 2035A Study Notes)

The Self

Introduction

The concept of the self is central to understanding human psychology. It encompasses how individuals perceive themselves, regulate their behavior, and evaluate their worth. This study guide covers key topics including self-concept, self-esteem, self-perception, self-regulation, self-presentation, and strategies for building self-esteem.

Self-Concept

Definition and Structure

The self-concept is an organized collection of beliefs about the self, including one’s basic nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior.

• Self-schemas: Cognitive beliefs about personality traits, abilities, physical features, values, goals, and social roles.

• Possible selves: Refers to one’s conception of the kind of person one might become in the future.

Example: A student may see themselves as hardworking (self-schema) and aspire to become a psychologist (possible self).

Components of Self-Concept

• Actual self: Qualities people think they actually possess.

• Ideal self: Qualities people would like to possess.

• Ought self: Qualities people think they should possess.

Discrepancies between these selves can lead to emotional consequences:

• If the actual self falls short of the ideal self, feelings of dejection and sadness may occur.

• If the actual self falls short of the ought self, feelings of irritability and guilt may arise.

Self-Discrepancy Table

Discrepancy	Emotional State	Possible Consequence
Actual vs. Ideal Self	Dejection, Sadness	Lowered mood
Actual vs. Ought Self	Irritability, Guilt	Self-criticism

Coping with Self-Discrepancies

• Change behavior to align with ideal or ought selves.

• Reduce self-awareness by avoiding triggering situations or using substances (not recommended).

Shaping the Self-Concept

• Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): We compare ourselves to others to assess our abilities and opinions.

• Reference group: A set of people used as a gauge for social comparisons.

• Comparing to superior groups can motivate improvement (upward social comparison), while comparing to inferior groups can bolster self-esteem (downward social comparison).

Influences on Self-Concept

• Feedback from others (parents, family, teachers, peers, friends, partners).

• Context and situation can affect self-view.

• Cultural values:

  • Individualism: Emphasizes personal goals and attributes; identity is defined independently.

  • Collectivism: Emphasizes group goals; identity is defined by group membership.

Individualism vs. Collectivism Table

Culture Type	View of Self
Individualistic	Independent, unique, self-contained
Collectivist	Interdependent, connected to others

Self-Esteem

Definition and Types

Self-esteem refers to one’s overall assessment of their worth as a person. It is a global evaluation of many aspects of the self.

• Trait self-esteem: Enduring sense of confidence in a person.

• State self-esteem: Dynamic feelings about the self that change with the situation.

Self-Esteem vs. Narcissism

• High self-esteem is generally positive, but excessive self-regard can be pathological (narcissism).

• Narcissism: Tendency to regard oneself as grandiose and self-important; differs from healthy self-esteem.

• Narcissistic individuals may be preoccupied with fantasies of success, expect special treatment, and react aggressively to threats to their self-view.

Development of Self-Esteem

• Parenting styles play a significant role.

• Key dimensions: Parental acceptance and parental control.

Parenting Style	Acceptance	Control	Associated Self-Esteem
Authoritative	High	High	High
Authoritarian	Low	High	Lower
Permissive	High	Low	Variable
Neglectful	Low	Low	Lowest

Principles of Self-Perception

Attributions

Attributions are inferences people make about the causes of their own behavior.

• Internal attributions: Ascribe behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings.

• External attributions: Ascribe behavior to situational demands.

Dimensions of Attributions

• Stable vs. Unstable: Stable causes are unlikely to change over time; unstable causes are variable.

• Controllable vs. Uncontrollable: Considers whether the individual has control over the behavior.

Dimension	Internal	External
Stable	Ability	Task difficulty
Unstable	Effort, mood	Luck, chance

Explanatory Style

• Optimistic explanatory style: Attributes setbacks to external, unstable, and specific factors.

• Pessimistic explanatory style: Attributes setbacks to internal, stable, and global factors.

Motives in Self-Understanding

• Self-assessment: Desire for truthful information about oneself.

• Self-enhancement: Desire to maintain positive feelings about oneself.

Methods of Self-Enhancement

• Downward social comparison: Comparing oneself to others who are worse off.

• Self-serving bias: Attributing successes to personal factors and failures to situational factors.

• Basking in reflected glory: Enhancing self-image by associating with successful others.

Self-Regulation

Definition and Ego Depletion

Self-regulation is the process of directing and controlling one’s behavior. According to the ego depletion model, self-regulation relies on a limited resource that can be exhausted.

• Resisting temptation in one area may make it harder to resist in another area later.

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is one’s belief about their ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes.

• High self-efficacy is linked to better physical and mental health.

• Can be developed through mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, persuasion, and interpretation of emotional arousal.

Example: Learning a new skill and persisting through mistakes increases self-efficacy.

Self-Presentation

Public Selves and Self-Monitoring

The public self is the image presented to others in social interactions. Individuals may have multiple public selves depending on the situation (e.g., with spouse, parents, boss, colleagues).

• Self-monitoring: The degree to which people control the impressions they make on others.

• High self-monitors are skilled at impression management; low self-monitors are more likely to express true feelings or attitudes.

Building Self-Esteem

Importance and Strategies

Healthy self-esteem is associated with happiness, resilience, and better relationships. Individuals with low self-esteem are more prone to depression, demoralization, and anxiety.

• Take control of your self-image and work to change it positively.

• Set realistic goals and avoid letting others set your goals.

• Use an optimistic explanatory style when confronting setbacks.

• Recognize and use your strengths.

• Associate with others who have a positive outlook.

References: Weiten, W., & Hammer, Y. (2023). Psychology Applied to Modern Life (13th ed.).