Theories of Development: Comprehensive Overview for Psychology Students

Ch 5: Theories of Development

Introduction

Developmental psychology explores the changes in physiology, cognition, personality, social behavior, and emotion that occur throughout the human lifespan. Understanding developmental theories is essential for predicting, recognizing, and supporting behaviors at various life stages.

Importance of Understanding Developmental Theories

• Physiological, psychological, and behavioral changes occur at different stages of life.

• Behaviors are influenced by culture, environment, past experiences, family, health status, and individual reactions.

• Understanding growth and development helps predict and recognize behaviors, aiding in effective teaching and support.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

Key Concepts

• Conflict and Anxiety: Internal conflicts arise when societal expectations clash with unconscious desires (id), leading to anxiety that surfaces in conscious behavior (ego).

• Oedipus Complex: A child's unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent.

• Electra Anxiety: The female counterpart to the Oedipus complex.

Defense Mechanisms for Coping

• Rationalization

• Repression

• Projection

• Displacement

• Reaction Formation

• Regression

• Identification

• Sublimation

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

• Oral (0-1 year): Pleasure centers on the mouth.

• Anal (1-3 years): Focus on bowel and bladder control.

• Phallic (3-6 years): Focus on genitals; Oedipus/Electra complex emerges.

• Latency (6-puberty): Dormant sexual feelings.

• Genital (puberty onward): Maturation of sexual interests.

Psychodynamic Theory (Jung)

• Carl Jung studied with Freud but emphasized that sexuality is not the sole basis of behavior development.

• Introvert: Focuses on internal thoughts and feelings.

• Extrovert: Focuses on external world and social interactions.

Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

• Personality development depends on social environment and interactions.

• Each stage involves a social crisis or task that must be resolved for healthy development.

Erikson’s Stages of the Life Cycle

• Trust vs. Mistrust

• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• Initiative vs. Guilt

• Industry vs. Inferiority

• Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Generativity vs. Self-Absorption

• Integrity vs. Despair

Psychosocial Theory (Levinson)

• Expanded on Erikson’s theories, emphasizing the interplay of environment, culture, and individual as the “fabric of life.”

• Believed in an orderly sequence of life events or structures.

Cognitive Theory (Piaget)

• Emphasized cognitive milestones in development.

• Four stages of cognitive development:

  • Sensorimotor (birth-2 years): Learning through senses and actions.

  • Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking, egocentrism.

  • Concrete Operations (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events.

  • Formal Operations (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

Cognitive Theory (Loevinger)

• Extended Piaget’s model into adulthood.

• The ego adapts to demands and is crucial for critical thinking.

Constructive Theory (Kegan)

• Similar to Piaget’s, but emphasizes lifelong interaction with the environment.

• Core needs: reciprocal relationships and independence.

Theory of Language and Culture (Vygotsky)

• Social and cultural experiences are essential for optimal growth and development.

• Language is a major force in personality development.

Vygotsky’s Language and Development Theory

• Infant

• Toddler

• Preschool (3-4 years old)

• School age

Social and Economic Influences (Bronfenbrenner)

• Growth and development are influenced by a combination of social and economic factors.

• Children may be treated differently in various environments, affecting their development.

Bronfenbrenner’s Social Theory of Growth and Development

• Parents, siblings

• Teachers, babysitters

• School, neighborhood, community

• Political community

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

• If basic needs are met, individuals can progress to higher levels of thought and self-fulfillment.

Level	Description
Physiological	Basic survival needs (food, water, shelter)
Activity	Movement and exercise
Safety and Protection	Security, stability, freedom from fear
Love and Belonging	Relationships, affection, being part of a group
Esteem	Self-respect, recognition, achievement
Self-Actualization	Realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment

Environmental Theory (Rogers)

• People naturally strive for a positive destiny if obstacles are removed.

• Mastery over the environment and positive relationships form the self-concept.

• Self-actualization occurs as one becomes more like their ideal self.

Behaviorist Theory (Watson)

• Personality is molded by the environment and experiences.

• Watson is considered the father of behaviorism.

Behaviorist Theory of Personality (Pavlov and Skinner)

• Personality and behavior are learned through:

  • Classical Conditioning: Learning by association (Pavlov).

  • Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (Skinner).

Social-Learning Theories of Personality (Bandura and Mischel)

• Personality develops through social learning—exposure to and imitation of behaviors.

Theory of Moral Development (Kohlberg)

• Moral reasoning develops through a series of stages.

• Development of social rules enables differentiation between right and wrong.

• Moral behavior is based on perception and integration of these rules.

Stage	Description
Preconventional	Morality judged by direct consequences to the individual
Conventional	Morality judged by societal rules and approval of others
Postconventional	Morality judged by abstract principles and ethical values

Development of Self-Image (Cooley and Mead)

• Looking-glass self: Self-image is formed through social interaction.

• Three steps:

  • Imagining how we portray ourselves to others

  • Imagining how others evaluate us

  • Combining these impressions to form a self-concept

Developmental Tasks of the Older Adult

Peck

• Coping with retirement from work

• Adapting to physiological decline due to aging

• Facing the inevitability of death

Havighurst

• Accepting oneself and maintaining meaning in life

• Adjusting to decreasing health status

• Adjusting to decreased income

• Adjusting to the death of a spouse

• Adapting to changing social roles and living arrangements

Atchley: Developmental Stages of Retirement

• Preretirement

• Honeymoon

• Disenchantment

• Stability

• Terminal

Additional Influences on Growth and Development

• Cultural beliefs and practices

• Gender differences

• Poverty

• Developmental tasks

Summary Table: Major Theories and Their Focus

Theory	Key Focus	Major Proponent(s)
Psychoanalytic	Unconscious drives, psychosexual stages	Freud
Psychosocial	Social crises across lifespan	Erikson, Levinson
Cognitive	Cognitive milestones, logical reasoning	Piaget, Loevinger, Kegan
Behaviorist	Learning through environment, conditioning	Watson, Pavlov, Skinner
Social Learning	Imitation, modeling	Bandura, Mischel
Moral Development	Moral reasoning stages	Kohlberg
Self-Image	Social interaction, self-concept	Cooley, Mead
Humanistic	Hierarchy of needs, self-actualization	Maslow, Rogers
Ecological	Social and economic influences	Bronfenbrenner

Additional info: These notes integrate and expand upon the provided slides, offering definitions, examples, and context for each theory. This guide is suitable for exam preparation and foundational understanding in a college-level developmental psychology course.