Week 4: Learning – Classical, Operant, and Cognitive Models in Psychology

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Learning in Psychology

Introduction to Learning

Learning is defined as a change in an organism’s actions, thoughts, or emotions as a result of experience. It is a foundational concept in psychology, explaining how behaviors are acquired and modified over time.

Habituation: One of the simplest forms of learning; it is the process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli.
Sensitization: The process of responding more strongly over time to a repeated stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov and the Discovery of Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered classical conditioning through his research on digestion in dogs. He observed that dogs would begin to salivate not only at the sight of food but also in response to stimuli associated with food, such as the research assistant who brought the food.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning): A form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response.

Key Terms in Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Stimulus that elicits an automatic response.
Unconditioned Response (UR): Automatic response to a stimulus that does not need to be learned.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response as a result of association with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR): Response previously associated with a stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning.

Stages of Classical Conditioning

Before Conditioning: US (food) → UR (salivation); Neutral stimulus (bell) → No response
During Conditioning: Neutral stimulus (bell) + US (food) → UR (salivation)
After Conditioning: CS (bell) → CR (salivation)

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition: Gradually learning or acquiring the conditioned response as the CS and UCS are paired repeatedly.
Extinction: Elimination of the conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.
Spontaneous Recovery: A seemingly extinct response reappears (usually in a weaker form) if the CS is presented again after a delay.

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Stimulus Generalization: The process by which CSs that are similar, but not identical, to the original CS elicit a CR. Example: A dog conditioned to salivate to a bell may also salivate to similar sounds.
Stimulus Discrimination: Exhibiting a less pronounced CR to CSs that differ from the original CS. Example: Learning to distinguish between a real-world stimulus and a televised stimulus.

Watson’s Little Albert Experiment

John B. Watson demonstrated stimulus generalization in humans by conditioning a young child (Little Albert) to fear a white rat, which generalized to other furry objects.

Higher-Order Conditioning

Higher-order conditioning occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus is used to condition a new stimulus. Each progressive level results in weaker conditioning.

Applications: Advertising often pairs products with positive stimuli to elicit favorable emotional responses.
Latent Inhibition: Prior exposure to a CS alone makes it harder to condition it to a new stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Definition and Principles

Operant conditioning is learning controlled by the consequences of an organism’s behavior. The behavior is shaped by what comes after it, and the organism “gets something” out of the response (e.g., food, attention, or avoiding something unpleasant).

The Law of Effect (E.L. Thorndike): If a response to a stimulus is rewarded, it is more likely to be repeated in the future.

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

Thorndike placed a hungry cat in a box with food outside. The cat learned to escape by pressing a button, demonstrating trial-and-error learning.

Skinner Box (Operant Chamber)

B.F. Skinner developed the operant chamber to study animal behavior. It allowed for automated recording of responses and delivery of reinforcers (e.g., food pellets).

Terminology of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement: Any outcome that strengthens the probability of a response.
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding a stimulus (e.g., giving a child a popsicle for following directions).
- Negative Reinforcement: Removing a stimulus (e.g., turning off an annoying sound when a seatbelt is buckled).
Punishment: Any outcome that weakens the probability of a response.
- Positive Punishment: Adding a stimulus (e.g., yelling at a roommate for leaving dirty clothes).
- Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus (e.g., taking away recess for bad behavior).

Therapeutic Applications

Token Economy: A system where tokens (secondary reinforcers) are earned and exchanged for primary reinforcers (e.g., food, drink).

Does Punishment Work?

Punishment teaches only what NOT to do, not what to do.
It can create anxiety, encourage subversive behavior, and may model aggression.
Studies show physical punishment is correlated with undesirable behaviors and aggression in children, but these studies are correlational, not causal.
Alternative explanations include genetic predisposition and cultural differences.

Discriminative Stimulus

Discriminative Stimulus: A stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement (e.g., snapping fingers to call a dog).

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing every time the behavior occurs.
Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing only occasionally.

Schedule	Description	Example
Fixed Ratio	Reinforcement after a set number of responses	Every 3 times a child raises their hand
Variable Ratio	Reinforcement after a variable number of responses	Slot machine
Fixed Interval	Reinforcement after a set amount of time	Getting paid every Friday
Variable Interval	Reinforcement after a variable amount of time	Giving a dog a treat at random intervals

Distinguishing Between Operant and Classical Conditioning

	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Target behavior	Elicited automatically	Emitted voluntarily
Reward	Provided unconditionally	Contingent on behavior
Behavior depends on	Autonomic nervous system	Skeletal muscles

Cognitive Models of Learning

Latent Learning

Edward Tolman demonstrated that learning can occur without reinforcement. Latent learning is learning that is not directly observable, such as forming a cognitive map (mental representation of how space is organized).

Cognitive Map: An internal spatial blueprint, such as learning the layout of a campus.

Observational Learning

Observational learning occurs by watching models (e.g., parents, teachers, peers). It allows individuals to learn without direct experience.

Albert Bandura’s Study: Demonstrated that children can learn aggressive behaviors by observing others.
Media violence and real-world aggression: Correlational studies show that children who watch violent television are more likely to display aggressive behaviors.

Learning Fads: Do They Work?

Sleep-assisted learning: No real evidence supports learning new material while asleep.
Discovery learning: Direct instruction is generally more effective than having students figure out principles on their own.
Learning Styles: Research does not support the idea that teaching to individual learning styles improves outcomes.

Classical Conditioning Demonstration

Neutral Stimulus (NS): The song
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Sour gummy candy
Unconditioned Response (UR): Salivation, puckering, anticipation
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The song (after pairing)
Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation or anticipation when the song plays, even before eating

Key Equations and Concepts

Classical Conditioning Formula:
Operant Conditioning:

Summary

This guide covers the major theories and principles of learning in psychology, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive models. Understanding these concepts is essential for analyzing how behaviors are acquired, maintained, and changed.